Lecture 3

Data representation and processing

How computers
represent data
Bits and bytes
Binary digits---bits

A byte comprises of 8 bits

and represents 1 character
Text codes
Converts letters into binary format
Is there a need of a standard code
ASCII
(American English symbols)
Extended ASCII
(Graphics and other symbols)
Unicode
(All languages on the planet)
How computers
process data
Central Processing Unit

CPU

Control Unit Arithmetic/

Logic Unit
(ALU)
 System Clock
Synchronizes all computer operations

Faster clock speed means the CPU can

execute more instructions each second

Units: MHz and GHz

 CPU Registers
Temporary storage location used by the CPU

High speed memory in CPU that stores:

1. Instruction while being decoded
2. Location from where instruction
was fetched
3. Data while the ALU processes it
4. Results of a calculation
Control Unit directs and coordinates most
of the computer operations

4 basic operations:
 Fetch – obtain a
program instruction or
data item from memory
 Decode - translate the
instruction into
commands
 Execute - carry out the
command
 Store - write the result to
memory
Arithmetic and Logic Unit

Comparison
(greater than, equal
to, or less than)

Arithmetic Logical
(addition, subtraction, (AND, OR,
multiplication, and NOT)
division)
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Performs the execution part of the machine cycle

CPU

Control Unit Arithmetic/

Logic Unit
(ALU)
Machine Cycle
4 operations of the CPU (control unit)
comprise a machine cycle; also called an
instruction cycle
Instruction time– time to fetch and decode
Execution time– time to execute and store

e-time i-time
Example
A student
Step 1: The
2:
3:
4: enters
ALU
control
a
mathdecodes
control
unit
executes
results
problem
of
unit
the
the math
the
into
the memory
fetches
problem
math problem
the math
ofare
and
the
computer
problem
sends
stored itinto
from
memory
the ALU
memory
The result in
memory displays
on the screen of
the monitor
 Memory

Volatile memory
volatile Memory
Loses its contents when the
nonvolatile
Loses its contents memory
computer's power is turned off
when the computer's
power is turned off Does not lose its
contents when the
computer’s power
is turned off
 Memory
2 basic types of RAM chips
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Static RAM (SRAM)
Also called main memory Used for special
Most common type applications such as
Variations: cache
Faster and more
Synchronous DRAM reliable than DRAM
(SDRAM)
chips
Double data rate SDRAM
(DDR SDRAM or SDRAM II)

Direct Rambus® DRAM

(Direct RDRAM®)
 Memory
3 basic types of memory modules
SIMM, DIMM, and RIMM

single inline Rambus®

memory inline memory
modules module (RIMM)
dual inline
(SIMMs)
memory
modules
(DIMMs)
 Memory Cache
Also called cache store or RAM cache

Limited very fast memory

Lower access time
Stores frequently used
instructions/ data to
speed up processing
 Three levels of Cache
Level 1 (L1) • Primary or internal cache
• Built directly into the processor chip
• Small capacity

Level 2 (L2) On older computers On newer computers

•Advanced transfer
External cache cache
High-speed SRAM
Larger, but chips on motherboard • built directly on the
slower, capacity processor chip

Only on newer
• Not used on older computers with L2
Level 3 (L3) advanced transfer cache
computers
Cache on motherboard
Read Only Memory (ROM)
Fixed start-up instructions

BIOS
Read-only Non-volatile (basic input/output
system)
Stored on ROM
 Types of ROM
Firmware
ROM chips
manufactured with PROM
permanently
(programmable EEPROM
written data,
read-only (electrically
instructions, or
memory) Blank erasable
information
ROM on which programmable read-
you can place only memory)
items A type of PROM
permanently containing
microcode that a
programmer can
erase
 Flash Memory
 Nonvolatile EEPROM memory that
can be erased and reprogrammed
 Stores data and programs on many
handheld computers and devices
 CMOS Memory
Flexible start-up
instructions

Complementary
metal-oxide Stores configuration
semiconductor information about
memory the computer Uses a battery
• Disk drives to retain the
information
• Keyboard
when the
• Monitor computer is
• Time/ date turned off
What are the different
CPU Architectures
RISC vs CISC Architecture

CISC
(complex instruction set
computing) RISC
 Supports a large
(reduced instruction
number of instructions set computing)
 Reduces instructions
 CPU executes complex
instructions more to only those used
quickly more frequently
 CPU executes simple
instructions more
quickly
Parallel Processing
Multiple processors
simultaneously execute a
program

Requires special
software to divide up a
problem and bring the
results back
How can different CPUs be
compared

Clock Speed
MIPS
FLOPS
What factors affect CPU
speed

Registers
Cache Memory
System and I/O Bus
Computer’s Clock
 Name common
microprocessors
Intel
AMD
Pentium® (Intel-
Pentium® II compatible) Motorola
with Alpha
MMX™ Duron™ PowerPC
AMD-K6® Used in
Celeron™ Used in workstations
Xeon™ Athlon™ Apples and high-end
Itanium™ with 3DNow!
servers
™
Used in PCs
Used in PCs
Difference between a
microprocessor and
microcontroller

Microcontroller is a complete
microprocessor system (CPU, RAM,
ROM, I/O) on a chip
Microprocessor requires other devices
Which (microprocessor or
microcontroller) are more
common

Microcontrollers (embedded systems)

are much more common

55 % of all CPUs sold are 8-bit uC

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