AUTO-PILOT - INTRODUCTION

• AN AUTO-PILOT IS DESIGNED TO KEEP A VESSEL STEADY ON A PARTICULAR HEADING AND IS THEREFORE A HEADING
CONTROL SYSTEM.
• TRACK CONTROL SYSTEMS ARE DESIGNED TO KEEP A VESSEL ON A PRE-DETERMINED TRACK THROUGHOUT ITS
PASSAGE AND MUST BE INTERFACED WITH AN ELECTRONIC POSITION FIXING SYSTEM LIKE GPS OR THROUGH AN
ECDIS ETC. TRACK CONTROL SYSTEMS HAVE THE CAPABILITY OF HEADING CONTROL SYSTEMS.
• ALL VESSELS OF 10000 GRT AND ABOVE MUST HAVE A HEADING OR TRACK CONTROL SYSTEM BUT TRACK CONTROL
IS NOT MANDATORY.
• MASTERS AND NAVIGATING OFFICERS MUST BE FULLY CONVERSANT WITH THE OPERATION OF THE AUTO-PILOT AND
CHANGE OVER PROCEDURES FROM AUTO TO MANUAL AND VICE VERSA.
• WHILE GOING TO/FROM MANUAL TO AUTO-PILOT THE HEADING AND RUDDER SHOULD BE SYNCHRONIZED PRIOR
CHANGE OVER SO AS TO AVOID A SUDDEN DEVIATION OF THE VESSELS HEADING. IF NOT POSSIBLE TO BRING
RUDDER TO MIDSHIP PRIOR CHANGE OVER FROM AUTO TO MANUAL, MANUAL HELM SHOULD BE MATCHED TO THE
RUDDER ANGLE SET BY AUTO-PILOT.
• TESTING OF AUTO-PILOT WITHIN 12 HOURS PRIOR DEPARTURE [INCLUDED IN STEERING GEAR TEST REQUIREMENT].

SOLAS CH.V REG.24 ON THE USE OF HEADING AND/OR TRACK CONTROL SYSTEMS, REQUIRES….
• CAPABILITY FOR IMMEDIATE CHANGE-OVER FROM AUTOMATIC TO MANUAL CONTROL IN AREAS OF HIGH TRAFFIC
DENSITY, RESTRICTED VISIBILITY AND ALL OTHER HAZARDOUS NAVIGATIONAL CONDITIONS.
• A QUALIFIED HELMSPERSON MUST BE IMMEDIATELY AVAILABLE IN SUCH CONDITIONS.
• CHANGEOVER TO BE SUPERVISED OR CARRIED OUT BY RESPONSIBLE OFFICER.
• TESTING OF MANUAL STEERING AFTER PROLONGED USE OF AUTOPILOT AND BEFORE ENTERING ANY AREA
REQUIRING SPECIAL CAUTION. RECOMMENDED ONCE PER WATCH.
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 AUTO-PILOT – TYPES OF CONTROL
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL :
• THE RUDDER IS MOVED BY AN AMOUNT PROPORTIONAL TO THE OFF-COURSE ERROR [BETWEEN GYRO HEADING
AND SET COURSE].
• HOWEVER, AS THE VESSEL RETURNS TOWARD THE SET COURSE, SHE WILL OVERSHOOT THE REQUIRED HEADING
DUE TO INERTIA, AND WILL NOW START TO APPLY CORRECTIVE HELM IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION.
• THIS PROCESS REPEATS AND LEADS TO AN OSCILLATION ABOUT THE REQUIRED COURSE.
• THE RESULT IS INCREASED STEAMING DISTANCE, INCREASED RUDDER DRAG AND INCREASED WEAR ON STEERING
GEAR AND RUDDER COMPONENTS. SEE FIGURE BELOW.
• TO SUIT PREVAILING CONDITIONS, MANUAL ADJUSTMENT OF RUDDER RATE AND RUDDER LIMIT IS ALSO PROVIDED.

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 AUTO-PILOT – TYPES OF CONTROL
DERIVATIVE CONTROL :
• THE RUDDER IS MOVED BY AN AMOUNT PROPORTIONAL TO THE “RATE OF CHANGE” OF THE DEVIATION OFF-
COURSE. THIS IS ACHIEVED BY ELECTRONICALLY DIFFERENTIATING THE ORIGINAL ERROR SIGNAL.
• THE INITIAL OFF-COURSE ERROR SENSED CAUSES A CORRECTIVE HELM TO BE APPLIED.
• THIS REDUCES THE RATE OF CHANGE OF DEVIATION OFF-COURSE AND CORRECTIVE HELM ORDER IS
CORRESPONDINGLY REDUCED. THIS ACTS LIKE A “COUNTER RUDDER” LIMITING THE EFFECT OF THE INITIAL RUDDER
ORDER AND CAN FURTHER BE MANUALLY ADJUSTED TO SUIT PREVAILING CONDITIONS.
• AT POINT X IN THE FIGURE BELOW, THE VESSEL IS ON THE SAME HEADING AS THE ORIGINAL COURSE AND THE
RUDDER WILL RETURN TO MIDSHIPS.
• THE VESSEL WILL THUS MAKE GOOD A COURSE PARALLEL TO THE ORIGINAL BUT WITH A SMALL OFFSET.
• THIS WILL CONTINUE UNTIL THE HEADING AGAIN DEVIATES FROM THE SET COURSE.

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 AUTO-PILOT – TYPES OF CONTROL
INTEGRAL CONTROL :
• THE ORIGINAL PROPORTIONAL ERROR SIGNALS ARE CONTINUOUSLY MONITORED OVER A PERIOD OF TIME AND
ELECTRONICALLY INTEGRATED.
• THE ACTION PRODUCED BY THIS INTEGRATED DATA OFFSETS ANY TENDENCY OF THE VESSEL TO BE CONTINUOUSLY
PUSHED OFF COURSE TO ONE SIDE DUE TO WIND/CURRENT, THE VESSELS OWN DRAFT/TRIM/HULL FORM,
PROPELLER ACTION ETC. BY ACTING AS A SMALL PERMANENT HELM.
• PERMANENT HELM MAY BE TO PORT/STARBOARD DEPENDING ON THE RESULTANT OF THE ABOVE MENTIONED
FORCES.
• MANUAL SETTING OF PERMANENT HELM MAY BE PROVIDED BUT IF NOT UTILIZED, THE INTEGRAL CONTROL WILL DO
THE JOB.
• VESSEL CONSTANTLY PUSHED OFF-COURSE TO PORT
DUE TO WIND/CURRENT ETC.
• WITH INTEGRAL CONTROL, A SMALL PERMANENT
HELM TO STARBOARD WILL CORRECT THIS OFFSET
AND KEEP THE VESSEL ON COURSE.

CONSIDERING THE FEATURES OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONTROL, WE SEE THAT A COMBINATION OF PROPORTIONAL,
INTEGRAL AND DERIVATIVE CONTROL [PID] WILL PROVIDE FOR BEST COURSE KEEPING. ADDITIONAL “WEATHER OR
YAW” CONTROL ALLOWS SETTING OF A “DEAD BAND” SO THAT YAWING DUE TO SEA CONDITIONS IS ONLY CORRECTED
WHEN IT GOES BEYOND THE PRESET LIMIT. THIS REDUCES FREQUENT HELM ORDERS AND REDUCES RUDDER DRAG AND
WEAR AND TEAR ON STEERING GEAR AND RUDDER COMPONENTS.
SEE BLOCK DIAGRAM ON NEXT SLIDE FOR A PID CONTROL AUTO-PILOT.
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 AUTO-PILOT – BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PID CONTROL
RUDDER INDICATOR
OFF
COURSE
STEERING COMPARTMENT
ALARM

GYROCOMPASS STEERING
RUDDER TELEMOTOR
GEAR &
FEEDBACK RECEIVER
RUDDER
INTEGRATOR
[PERMANENT
HELM]

COURSE
COMPARATOR SUMMING ERROR TELEMOTOR
AMPLIFIER RUDDER TRANSMITTER
[PROPORTIONATE AMPLIFIER
LIMIT
ERROR OUTPUT]

DIFFERENTIATOR
[COUNTER YAW OR
CONTROL UNIT RUDDER] WEATHER
CONTROL
FEEDBACK
SET
RUDDER
COURSE COMBINED PID STEERING
RATE
PERM.
HELM

MANUAL CONTROLS SET COURSE – REQUIRED HEADING OFF COURSE – LIMIT OF HEADING DEVIATION RUDDER RATE –
RUDDER RESPONSE SPEED. TOO FAST – OVERSHOOT, TOO SLOW - SLUGGISH RUDDER LIMIT – PRESET MAX RUDDER ANGLE. TOO
LARGE – OVERSHOOT, TOO SMALL - SLUGGISH COUNTER RUDDER – COUNTERACTS CORRECTIVE RUDDER. PREVENTS OVERSHOOT
PERMANENT HELM – TO COUNTERACT EXTERNAL EFFECTS TENDING TO PUSH VSL TO ONE SIDE YAW/WEATHER – DEADBAND
ACROSS WHICH CORRECTIVE HELM IS NOT APPLIED. PREVENTS TOO FREQUENT APPLICATION OF RUDDER. LOW VALUE - GOOD WX,
HIGH - BAD WX SHIP’S SPEED – AUTOMATICALLY FROM LOG, ELSE MANUAL. MORE SPEED – BETTER RESPONSE AND VICE VERSA
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 AUTO-PILOT – VARIOUS CONTROL SETTINGS
SET COURSE – FOR SETTING REQUIRED HEADING.
OFF COURSE – SETS ALARM LIMIT OF HEADING DEVIATION. ALARM SOUNDS WHEN LIMIT IS EXCEEDED.
RUDDER RATE – SETS THE RUDDER RESPONSE SPEED I.E. HOW QUICKLY THE RUDDER REACTS IN RESPONSE TO AN ERROR SIGNAL. IF
TOO FAST WILL CAUSE OVERSHOOT. IF TOO SLOW STEERING RESPONSE WILL BE SLUGGISH.
RUDDER LIMIT – PRESET MAX RUDDER ANGLE. IF TOO LARGE WILL CAUSE OVERSHOOT. IF TOO SMALL STEERING RESPONSE WILL BE
SLUGGISH.
COUNTER RUDDER – COUNTERACTS CORRECTIVE RUDDER. AS THE VESSEL RETURNS TOWARD THE PRE-SET HEADING, THE AMOUNT
OF CORRECTIVE IS REDUCED AND OPPOSITE RUDDER IS APPLIED TO PREVENT OVERSHOOT.
PERMANENT HELM – TO COUNTERACT EXTERNAL EFFECTS TENDING TO PUSH VSL TO ONE SIDE. IF LEFT AT ZERO, THE INTEGRAL
CONTROL WILL APPLY A CALCULATED PERMANENT HELM. MANUAL SETTING ALLOWS FINE TUNING OF THIS LEVEL.
YAW/WEATHER – SEA AND SWELL MAY KEEP PHYSICALLY TOSSING THE VESSELS HEAD TO AND FRO. THE AUTO-PILOT WILL APPLY
CORRECTIVE RUDDER EACH TIME THE HEADING DEVIATES FROM THE SET COURSE. THIS CONTROL SETS A DEADBAND ACROSS WHICH
CORRECTIVE HELM IS NOT APPLIED. A LOW VALUE IN GOOD WX WILL HELP MAINTAIN TIGHT STEERING CONTROL. A HIGH VALUE IN
BAD WX ALLOWS THE VESSELS HEAD TO SWING THROUGH A LARGER ARC BEFORE APPLYING CORRECTIVE HELM. THIS PREVENTS TOO
FREQUENT APPLICATION OF RUDDER AND REDUCES RUDDER DRAG.
SHIP’S SPEED – NORMALLY INPUT AUTOMATICALLY FROM LOG, ELSE MANUAL. MORE SPEED – BETTER RESPONSE AND VICE VERSA.
SYNCHRONIZATION CONTROL – TEMPORARILY DISCONNECTS THE STEERING REPEATER AND ALLOWS ADJUSTMENT OF THE REPEATER.
NORMALLY REQUIRED ONLY IF THE REPEATER SYSTEM IS SWITCHED OFF.
AUTO/FOLLOW-UP/NON FOLLOW-UP – SELECTS AUTOMATIC STEERING OR MANUAL [HAND] STEERING IN THE FOLLOW-UP MODE AND
IN EMERGENCY ALLOWS NON FOLLOW-UP [NFU] STEERING.
IN THE FOLLOW-UP MODE, THE RUDDER CONTINUOUSLY FOLLOWS THE STEERING ORDER. IN THE NFU MODE ONCE A HELM ORDER IS
GIVEN AND THE RUDDER MOVES TO ONE SIDE, AN OPPOSITE HELM ORDER IS REQUIRED TO TAKE THE RUDDER BACK TO ORIGINAL
POSITION. E.G. APPLY STBD HELM, RUDDER MOVES TO STBD. RELEASE HELM WHEN RUDDER REACHES REQUIRED VALUE, SAY S10.
RUDDER STAYS AT S10. APPLY OPPOSITE HELM, RUDDER MOVES TOWARD PORT. RELEASE HELM WHEN RUDDER IS AT MIDSHIP AND
RUDDER STOPS AT MIDSHIP.
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 AUTO-PILOT – PID CONTROL SYSTEM
• THE OUTPUT FROM A GYRO OR MAGNETIC COMPASS IS COUPLED TO THE COMPARATOR, IN THE CONTROL UNIT,
ALONG WITH THE INPUT SIGNAL FROM MANUAL COURSE SETTING CONTROL.
• ANY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO SIGNALS CAUSES AN OUTPUT ERROR SIGNAL WHOSE MAGNITUDE IS
PROPORTIONAL TO THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO SIGNALS AND HENCE THE COMPARATOR IS ALSO REFERRED
TO AS PROPORTIONAL CONTROL.
• THE PROPORTIONATE ERROR SIGNAL IS FURTHER FED THROUGH DERIVATIVE AND INTEGRAL CONTROLS WHICH
PROVIDE SEPARATE ELECTRONICALLY DIFFERENTIATED AND INTEGRATED SIGNALS.
• A SUMMING AMPLIFIER IS USED TO OBTAIN A RESULTANT ERROR SIGNAL FROM THE PID CONTROLS.
• THIS SUMMED ERROR SIGNAL IS FED TO AN ERROR AMPLIFIER WHICH ALSO GETS FEEDBACK SIGNALS FROM THE
RUDDER, CONSISTING OF THE RUDDER POSITION AND MOVEMENT.
• THE OUTPUT OF THIS ERROR AMPLIFIER IS FED VIA TELEMOTORS TO THE STEERING GEAR UNIT AND THUS OPERATES
THE RUDDER. THE TELEMOTOR HAS TWO UNITS, I.E. TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER SITUATED ON THE BRIDGE AND
STEERING GEAR COMPARTMENT RESPECTIVELY. THERE WILL BE NO OUTPUT FROM THE CONTROL UNIT WHEN THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TELEMOTOR TX/RX SIGNALS IS ZERO AND HENCE NO MOVEMENT OF THE RUDDER
RESULTS.
• A HUNTING GEAR ARRANGEMENT ENSURES THAT THE RUDDER MAINTAINS IT’S POSITION CORRESPONDING TO THE
TELEMOTOR ORDER WHEN OPERATING IN THE FOLLOW-UP MODE.
RUDDER FEEDBACK
COMBINED PID STEERING
GYRO
PID CONTROLLERS & TELEMOTOR STEERING GEAR
ERROR AMP
SUMMING AMP TX / RX & RUDDER
RUDDER SET
INDICATOR COURSE
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 AUTO-PILOT – ADAPTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM
WHY DO WE REQUIRE AN ADAPTIVE AUTO-PILOT?

• WE NEED TO SET THE CONTROLS OF THE AUTOPILOT SO AS TO ACHIEVE OPTIMUM COURSE KEEPING PERFORMANCE
IN VARYING SEA CONDITIONS.
• HOWEVER, SINCE WE ARE ABLE TO OBSERVE ONLY THE RUDDER ANGLE AND THE SHIP’S HEADING, IT IS DIFFICULT
TO ACHIEVE AN OPTIMAL SET OF CONTROL VALUES.
• ADDITIONALLY, AS CONDITIONS CHANGE, WE NEED TO CHANGE THE SETTINGS TO MAINTAIN OPTIMAL STEERING.
• THESE ADJUSTMENTS ARE TEDIOUS AND IT IS ALSO DIFFICULT TO KNOW WHEN OPTIMUM PERFORMANCE HAS BEEN
ACHIEVED.
• OWING TO THIS WE RARELY OBTAIN THE OPTIMUM SETTINGS.
• ADAPTIVE AUTOPILOTS HAVE THEREFORE BEEN DESIGNED WITH THE AIM OF PRODUCING BETTER COURSE-KEEPING
AND COURSE-CHANGING BY AUTOMATICALLY ADJUSTING THE AUTOPILOT PARAMETERS.
• THERE ARE SEVERAL WAYS IN WHICH THE NECESSARY ADAPTATION MAY BE DONE.
• THIS PROCESS IS ESSENTIALLY AUTOMATING WHAT THE CONSCIENTIOUS OPERATOR WILL DO.

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 AUTO-PILOTACTUAL
– ADAPTIVE
COURSE
CONTROL SYSTEM
OR GYRO HEADING

SET PID DESIRED STEERING ACTUAL VESSEL YAW/MOTION

VESSEL
COURSE AUTOPILOT RUDDER CONTROL RUDDER

MODEL KALMAN
FILTER
REFERENCE SEA STATE
ADAPTIVE ESTIMATION COMPARATOR

CONTROL OPTIMUM REFERENCE

SYSTEM ADJUST MODEL MODEL YAW/MOTION

A STANDARD PID AUTOPILOT COMPARES THE GYRO HEADING AND SET COURSE AND PROVIDES AN ERROR SIGNAL.
A MATHEMATICAL REFERENCE MODEL IS SUBJECTED TO THE SAME INPUTS AND TO THE SAME DISTURBANCES AS THE
ACTUAL SHIP [DESIRED RUDDER AND VESSEL YAW]. THE MODEL IS TUNED TO PROVIDE OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE.
THE KALMAN FILTER RECEIVES ACTUAL RUDDER INFORMATION AND VESSEL YAW DATA. IT ANALYSES DISTURBANCES DUE
TO SEA CONDITIONS AND PROVIDES YAW CONTROL THROUGH FEEDBACK TO THE PID AUTOPILOT.
THE VESSEL’S YAW/MOTION, AS SET BY THE AUTO-PILOT, IS COMPARED WITH THOSE OF THE MODEL.
ANY DIFFERENCE IN OUTPUT BETWEEN THE MODEL AND THE SHIP IS MINIMIZED BY THE AUTOMATIC OPTIMUM
ADJUSTMENT OF THE AUTO-PILOT SETTINGS.
WHEN VESSEL AND MODEL MOTIONS MATCH, COMPARATOR OUTPUT IS ZERO AND SHIP’S PERFORMANCE IS OPTIMAL.
MANUAL SETTING OF DRAFT [BALLAST/MID/LOADED] AND SEA [OPEN/CONFINED] MODE HELPS IMPROVE ACCURACY
OF OUTPUT BY THE MODEL. 9
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