Chapter 4

Rocks & Igneous Rocks

 Rock Definition
A naturally occurring consolidated mixture of
one or more minerals
e.g, marble, granite, sandstone, limestone
 Rock Definition
Must naturally occur in nature, cannot be man-made
Is a solid, not gas, ice or liquid
Composed of one or more minerals
 Exceptions to the Definition
Some rocks are not formed of minerals
Noncrystalline, glassy volcanic rocks such as
obsidian and pumice
Coal which is formed from compacted plant remains
 Appearance of a Rock
The appearance of a rock is determined by
two major factors

Mineralogy

Texture
 Appearance of a Rock
Mineralogy refers to the relative proportions of the
constituent minerals
Texture is determined by the size, shape and
arrangement of the mineral crystals
 Appearance of a Rock

Mineralogy and texture are related

to how and where a rock was
formed and what has happened to
the rock since it was created
Three Great Families of Rocks

Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Three Types of Rocks
 Igneous Rocks
Rocks formed by the solidification of magma
(molten rock)

Granite
Two Types of Igneous Rocks

Extrusive igneous rocks

form when magma erupts
at the surface (i.e., above
ground) and rapidly cools
Intrusive igneous rocks
form when magma
intrudes into bedrock and
slowly cools (i.e., below
ground)
Igneous Rocks
 Igneous Rock Texture
Intrusive rocks such as granite are coarse
grained (can easily see the grains with the
unaided eye)
Extrusive igneous rocks such as basalt are
glassy or fine grained
Most Igneous Rock are Silicates

Quartz
Feldspar
Mica
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Olivine
Basalt
Granite
 Sedimentary Rocks

Rocks formed by consolidation of sediments

Classified by the type of sediments
Two Major Types of Sediments
Clastic sediments are physically deposited
particles derived from weathered rocks
Chemical and biochemical sediments include
minerals carried in solution such as calcite and
halite
From Sediments to Solid Rocks
Lithification is the process of converting sediments
into solid rocks
(will cover in detail in another lecture)
The Two Types of Lithification

Compaction – sediments are squeezed together by

the weight of overlying sediments into a solid mass
Cementation – minerals precipitate around the
sediments and bind them into a solid rock
Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary Rocks
5 % by volume of the upper crust
75 % by exposed surface area of continents
 Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks commonly contain fossils
In fact, some sedimentary rocks are almost entirely
composed of fossils
Can exhibit extensive horizontal layers called
bedding
 Composition

Sedimentary rocks can be

composed of sediments
created from any of three
great families of rock
(igneous, sedimentary,
metamorphic)
Chemical cementation
commonly includes
calcite, gypsum and
halite
 Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed by the transformation

of previously-existing rocks in the solid state due to
increased temperature and pressure
 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism can change the mineralogy, texture
and/or the chemical composition of a “parent rock”
while maintaining its solid form
Note that the rock does not melt (temperature range
250 to 700 C)
 Regional and Contact
Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism occurs where high
temperature and pressures occur over large
region (plate tectonics)
Contact metamorphism is limited to smaller
areas such as around a magma intrusion into
bedrock
Regional Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
Other Forms of Metamorphism
Ultra-high pressure metamorphism occurs deep
in the continental and oceanic crust
High-pressure, low-temperature metamorphism
occurs where oceanic crust subducts under a
continental plate
Shock metamorphism at impact sites
 Metamorphic Mineralization
Silicates are the most common mineral in
metamorphic rocks
Minerals can tell you the “grade”of metamorphism

Certain minerals are

uniquely
characteristic of
metamorphic rocks
(kyanite, staurolite,
some garnets)
Metamorphic Mineralization

Contact Ultra-high pressure Regional High-press, low-temp

Proportions of the Rock Types
 A Few More Facts…
Igneous processes create new rock
Metamorphic and sedimentary processes
re-work old rock into a new form
Silicate mineral are the most common
minerals found in all types of rocks
Common Minerals Found in Rocks
Five Very Different Locations
Rock Cycle
Rock Cycle
 Rock Cycle
Subduction of an
oceanic plate beneath
a continental plate
uplifts a volcanic
mountain range

Magma
rises from
melting
plate and
intrudes or
extrudes in
the crust
 Rock Cycle
Magmas cool
to make
igneous rock
Basalt versus
granite
 Rock Cycle
Weathering and
erosion creates
sediments
 Rock Cycle

Sediments
are carried to
the oceans
and lakes

Lithification
Rock Cycle
Metamorphism of subducted rock

Tectonic plates interact

 Rock Cycle
Entire process starts
over as plates interact
Igneous Rocks
 Igneous Rocks
How do igneous rocks differ from one another?
Where do they form?
How do rocks solidify from a melt (magma)?
Where do rock melt?
We Classify Igneous Rocks
by Appearance

Mineralogy (Chemistry)

Texture
Igneous Rocks
We Classify Igneous Rocks
by Genetics (Origin)

There are two classes of igneous

rocks

Intrusive
Extrusive
 Genetic Classification of
Igneous Rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks crystallized from slowly
cooling magma intruded within the Earth’s crust,
such as granite and gabbro
Granite Intrusions
 Genetic Classification of
Igneous Rocks
Extrusive igneous rocks crystallized from rapidly
cooling magma extruded on the surface of the Earth
as lava or erupted as pyroclastic material, such as
basalt
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Rocks formed from the cooling of lavas extruded
onto the Earth’s surface or onto ocean floors
Rocks formed by the cooling of pyroclastic
material, such as fragmented pieces of magma and
material erupted into the air
We Can Also Classify Igneous
Rocks by Composition

Chemistry
Mineralogy
 Chemistry
Modern classification of igneous rock is based
upon the silica (SiO2) content
The silica content is determined by the silicate
minerals that occur in the rock (i.e., the minerals
contain SiO2)
The percentage of silica ranges from about 40% to
about 70%
Rocks are referred to as “silica rich” or “silica poor”
 Mineralogy

There are four major divisions of igneous rocks

based upon the content of elements in the
minerals:
Felsic
Intermediate
Mafic
Ultramafic
 Felsic Igneous Rocks

Rich (high) in minerals containing silica

Poor (low) in iron and magnesium

They include: Granite

Rhyolite
Intermediate Igneous Rocks

Intermediate in composition between

felsic and mafic igneous rocks
Less silica, more Fe & Mg than felsic
More silica, less Fe & Mg than mafic

They include: Granodiorite

Dacite
Diorite
Andesite
Mafic Igneous Rocks

Poor (low) in minerals containing silica

Rich (high) in iron and magnesium

They include: Gabbro

Basalt
Ultramafic Igneous Rocks

Very uncommon on the Earth’s surface

Very poor (lower) in minerals containing silica
Consist primarily of mafic minerals (olivine,
pyroxene)

The most common ultramafic rock is:

Peridotite
Felsic Intermediate Mafic
Granite Granodiorite Diorite Gabbro

Rhyolite Dacite Andesite Basalt

Common Minerals of Igneous Rocks
 When Do Rocks Melt?
Melting starts at ~700o C
When the temperature exceeds the melting point
of the rock or some minerals within the rock
Minerals melt at different temperatures
 When Do Rocks Melt?

Three Factors Affecting Melting of Rocks

Pressure: Increased pressures raises melting

points

Water Content: Increased water content

lowers melting points

Composition: Felsic minerals melt at lower

temperatures than mafic minerals
 Magma Differentiation

The process by which rocks of

various compositions can arise from a
uniform parent magma
 The
Formation of
Magma
Chambers

Partial melting
 The
Formation of
Magma
Less dense magma Chambers

Partial melting
 The
Magma rises
Formation of
Magma
Less dense magma Chambers

Partial melting
Magma pools in
magma chamber

The
Magma rises
Formation of
Magma
Less dense magma Chambers

Partial melting
 Magma Differentiation
Occurs because different minerals crystallize
(solidify) at different temperatures
In other words, as the magma cools some minerals
form first, some form last
 Fractional Crystallization
The process by
which crystals
forming in a cooling
magma are
segregated from the
remaining liquid
In a simple scenario,
the crystal settle to
the floor or adhere to
the walls of the
magma chamber
 Fractional Crystallization

The elements (such as Fe and Mg) used to create

the newly formed crystals are now no longer
available for creating new minerals
Therefore the chemical composition of the magma
slowly changes as new minerals are continually
formed and the available matter is selectively used
up
 Bowen’s Reaction Series
Experiments that determined the sequence
of crystallization of minerals from a
gradually cooling mafic (basaltic) magma
Conducted by Norman L. Bowen prior to
1916

These experiments totally

rewrote our understanding of
igneous rock formation
Bowen’s Reaction Series
 Evidence of Fractional
Crystallization in the Palisades Sill
 Evidence of Fractional
Crystallization in the Palisades Sill

first olivine next pyroxene pyroxene finally plagioclase

& plag. Feldpar finishes
 Partial Melting
and the Origin of Magmas
Partial melting of upper mantle:
Mafic
e.g. at divergent spreading
centers Magmas

Partial melting of continental Felsic

crustal rocks Magmas
Magmatic Stoping: Making Room
for the Intrusion of Magma

Wedging open overlying rock

Breaking off large blocks of rock
(remnants of which are called xenoliths)
Melting of surrounding country rock
Rising Magma Wedges Open and
Fractures Overlying Country Rock
Overlying rocks may bow up
Magma melts surrounding rock
…changing the composition of the
magma
 Blocks of the Overlying Country
Rocks (Xenoliths) May Break Off and
Sink into the Magma
 Plutons
Large igneous bodies
formed at depth in the
Earth’s crust
 Types of Plutons

Batholith: Massive, discordant intrusive body

covering at least 100 km2

Stock: Massive, discordant intrusive body

covering less than 100 km2

Dike: Tabular, discordant intrusive body

Sill: Tabular, concordant intrusive body

Types of intrusive and extrusive
igneous structures
Sill
Dike
Where Do Most Magmas Occur?
Divergent Plate Margins
Convergent Plate Margins
Mantle Plumes/Hot Spots
 Island Arc
Plate Subduction
(Japanese Islands)
 Continental
Plate Subduction
(Mount St. Helens)
 Hot Spot
Volcanism
(Hawaii)
Generation of Magmas at
Convergent Plate Margins

Subduction drags oceanic

lithosphere (including a veneer
of “wet” sediments) beneath
the adjacent plate
 Generation of Magmas at
Convergent Plate Margins

The release of volatiles lowers the

melting point of the adjacent mantle,
causing fluid-induced melting to form a
mafic magma, which becomes more
intermediate in composition as it rises
through the overlying crust
x
 Ophiolite Suites
Unusual assemblages of
rocks found on land that
had characteristics of
seafloor
Composed of deep-sea
sediments, basaltic lavas
and mafic igneous
intrusions
Fragments of ocean crust
moved onto land by plate
tectonics
 Idealized Section
of an Ophiolite
Suite

?
Generation of Igneous Rocks at
Divergent Plate Margins
Some of the mafic magma cools in massive magma
chambers to form massive gabbros
Some of the magma is intruded as sheeted dikes
These dikes are feeder for basaltic lava flows which
form pillows as they extrude beneath the ocean
Chapter 5
Volcanoes