10.

Strain Transformation
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
• Apply the stress
transformation methods
derived in Chapter 9 to
similarly transform strain
• Discuss various ways of
measuring strain
• Develop important
material-property
relationships; including generalized form of
Hooke’s law
• Discuss and use theories to predict the failure of a
material
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 10. Strain Transformation
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Plane Strain
2. General Equations of Plane-Strain
Transformation
3. *Mohr’s Circle: Plane Strain
4. *Absolute Maximum Shear Strain
5. Strain Rosettes
6. Material-Property Relationships
7. *Theories of Failure

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.1 PLANE STRAIN

• As explained in Chapter 2.2, general state of strain

in a body is represented by a combination of 3
components of normal strain (x, y, z), and 3
components of shear strain (xy, xz, yz).
• Strain components at a pt determined by using
strain gauges, which is measured in specified
directions.
• A plane-strained element is subjected to two
components of normal strain (x, y) and one
component of shear strain, xy.

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.1 PLANE STRAIN

• The deformations are shown graphically below.

• Note that the normal strains are produced by
changes in length of the element in the x and y
directions, while shear strain is produced by the
relative rotation of two adjacent sides of the
element.

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.1 PLANE STRAIN

• Note that plane stress does not always cause plane

strain.
• In general, unless  = 0, the Poisson effect will
prevent the simultaneous occurrence of plane strain
and plane stress.
• Since shear stress and shear
strain not affected by Poisson’s
ratio, condition of xz = yz = 0
requires xz = yz = 0.

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Sign Convention
• To use the same convention as
defined in Chapter 2.2.
• With reference to differential
element shown, normal strains
xz and yz are positive if they
cause elongation along the x
and y axes
• Shear strain xy is positive if the interior angle AOB
becomes smaller than 90.

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION
Sign Convention
• Similar to plane stress, when measuring the normal
and shear strains relative to the x’ and y’ axes, the
angle  will be positive provided it follows the
curling of the right-hand fingers, counterclockwise.
Normal and shear strains
• Before we develop the
strain-transformation eqn for
determining x;, we must determine
the elongation of a line segment dx’
that lies along the x’ axis and
subjected to strain components.

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• Components of line dx and dx’ are elongated and
we add all elongations together.
x'   x dx cos    y dy sin   xy dy cos 
• From Eqn 2.2, the normal strain along the line dx’ is
x’ =x’/dx’. Using Eqn 10-1,
 x '   x cos 2    y sin 2    xy sin  cos  10 - 2

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• To get the transformation equation for x’y’, consider
amount of rotation of each of the line segments dx’
and dy’ when subjected to strain components.
Thus,
y'   x dx sin   y dy cos    xy dy sin

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• Using Eqn 10-1 with  = y’/x’,
    x   y sin  cos    xy sin 2  10 - 3
• As shown, dy’ rotates by an amount .

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• Using identities sin ( + 90) = cos ,
cos ( + 90) =  sin ,
    x   y sin   90cos   90   xy sin   90
2

   x   y cos  sin    xy cos 2 

• Thus we get
 x' y '    

 2 x   y sin  cos    xy cos 2   sin 2   10 - 4

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• Using trigonometric identities sin 2 = 2 sin cos,
cos2 = (1 + cos2 )/2 and sin2 + cos2 = 1, we
rewrite Eqns 10-2 and 10-4 as
x   y x  y  xy
 x'   cos 2  sin 2 10 - 5
2 2 2

 x' y ' x   y   xy

   sin 2  cos 2 10 - 6
2  2  2

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• If normal strain in the y direction is required, it can
be obtained from Eqn 10-5 by substituting ( + 90)
for . The result is
x   y x  y  xy
 y'   cos 2  sin 2 10 - 6
2 2 2

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Principal strains
• We can orientate an element at a pt such that the
element’s deformation is only represented by
normal strains, with no shear strains.
• The material must be isotropic, and the axes along
which the strains occur must coincide with the axes
that define the principal axes.
• Thus from Eqns 9-4 and 9-5,
 xy
tan 2 p  10 - 8
x  y

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Principal strains
x   y
  x   y    xy 
2 2
1, 2       10 - 9
2  2   2 
Maximum in-plane shear strain
• Using Eqns 9-6, 9-7 and 9-8, we get
x   y 
tan 2 s  
 


10 - 10
 xy 


  x   y    xy 
max 2 2
in - plane
      10 - 11
2  2   2 
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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Maximum in-plane shear strain

• Using Eqns 9-6, 9-7 and 9-8, we get
x   y
 avg  10 - 12
2

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION
IMPORTANT
• Due to Poisson effect, the state of plane strain is not
a state of plane stress, and vice versa.
• A pt on a body is subjected to plane stress when the
surface of the body is stress-free.
• Plane strain analysis may be used within the plane
of the stresses to analyze the results from the
gauges. Remember though, there is normal strain
that is perpendicular to the gauges.
• When the state of strain is represented by the
principal strains, no shear strain will act on the
element.

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 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

IMPORTANT
• The state of strain at the pt can also be represented
in terms of the maximum in-plane shear strain. In
this case, an average normal strain will also act on
the element.
• The element representing the maximum in-plane
shear strain and its associated average normal
strains is 45 from the element representing the
principal strains.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1
A differential element of material at a pt is subjected to
a state of plane strain x = 500(10-6), y =  300(10-6),
which tends to distort the element as shown.
Determine the equivalent strains acting on an element
oriented at the pt, clockwise 30 from the original
position.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)
• Since  is counterclockwise, then  = –30, use
strain-transformation Eqns 10-5 and 10-6,
x   y x  y  xy
 x'   cos 2  sin 2
2 2 2


500   300 6
2  10  



500   300 6
2  10 cos  2  30   
  sin 2 30
 200 106

 2 
 x '  213 106
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)
• Since  is counterclockwise, then  = –30, use
strain-transformation Eqns 10-5 and 10-6,
 x' y ' x   y   xy
   sin 2  cos 2
2  2  2
 500   300
   sin 2 30
 2 


 
200 10 6
cos 2 30
2
 
 x ' y '  793 106

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)
• Strain in the y’ direction can be obtained from Eqn
10-7 with  = –30. However, we can also obtain y’
using Eqn 10-5 with  = 60 ( = –30 + 90),
replacing x’ with y’

 y'  

500   300 6
2 

10  



500   300 6
2  10 cos  260   
  sin 260
 200 106

 2 
 y '  13.4 106   22
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)
• The results obtained tend to deform the element as
shown below.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2
A differential element of material at a pt is subjected to
a state of plane strain defined by x = –350(10-6),
y = 200(10-6), xy = 80(10-6), which tends to distort the
element as shown. Determine the principal strains at
the pt and associated orientation of the element.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)
Orientation of the element
From Eqn 10-8, we have
 xy 6
80(10 )
tan 2 p  
 x   y  350  200(106 )
Thus 2 p  8.28 and  8.28  180  172, so that
 p   4.14 and 85.9

Each of these angles is measured

positive counterclockwise, from the
x axis to the outward normals on
each face of the element.
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)
Principal strains
From Eqn 10-9,

x   y   x   y    xy 
2 2
1, 2       
2  2   2 
 350  20010     350  200 2  80 2  6
 
6
        10
2   2   2  

 
 75.0 106  277.9 106  
1  203106   2  353106 

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)
Principal strains
We can determine which of these two strains deforms
the element in the x’ direction by applying Eqn 10-5
with  = –4.14. Thus
x   y x  y  xy
 x'   cos 2  sin 2
2 2 2

 2
 10  
  2
 
 350  200  6   350  200  6

 
 10 cos  4.14


80 106  
sin 2 4.14
2
 x '  353 106  
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)
Principal strains
Hence x’ = 2. When subjected to the principal strains,
the element is distorted as shown.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3
A differential element of material at a pt is subjected to
a state of plane strain defined by x = –350(10-6),
y = 200(10-6), xy = 80(10-6), which tends to distort the
element as shown. Determine the maximum in-plane
shear strain at the pt and associated orientation of the
element.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)
Orientation of the element
From Eqn 10-10,
x   y 
tan 2 s      350  200  10  
6
 
 xy 
 80 10 6
 
Thus, 2 s  81.72 and 81.72  180  261.72, so that
 s  40.9 and 130.9
Note that this orientation is 45 from that shown in
Example 10.2 as expected.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
Applying Eqn 10-11,
    2
 2
 x y  xy 
max
in - plane
     
2  2   2 
   350  200 2  80 2  6
       10  
  2   2  

 556 106
 max  
in - plane
 max
The proper sign of in - plane can be obtained by applying
Eqn 10-6 with s = 40.9.
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
 x' y '  x   y  xy
 sin 2  cos 2
2 2 2



 350  200  6
2
 10 sin 240.9

 

80 106 
cos 240.9
2
 x ' y '  556 106  
Thus  max tends to distort the element so that the
in - plane
right angle between dx’ and dy’ is decreased (positive
sign convention).
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
There are associated average normal strains imposed
on the element determined from Eqn 10-12:

 avg 
 x   y  350  200 6
2

2
10  75 106   
These strains tend to
cause the element to contract.

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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

• Advantage of using Mohr’s circle for plane strain

transformation is we get to see graphically how the
normal and shear strain components at a pt vary
from one orientation of the element to the next.
• Eliminate parameter  in Eqns 10-5 and 10-6 and
2   xy 
rewrite as 2
 x   avg    2   R 2 10 - 13
 
where
x   y   x   y    xy 
2 2
 avg  R      
2  2   2 
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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Construction of the circle
• Establish a coordinate system such that the
abscissa represents the normal strain , with
positive to the right, and the ordinate represents half
the value of the shear strain, /2, with positive
downward.
• Using positive sign convention for x, y, and xy,
determine the center of the circle C, which is located
on the  axis at a distance avg = (x + v)/2 from the
origin.

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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Construction of the circle
• Plot the reference pt A having coordinates (x, xy/2).
This pt represents the case for which the x’ axis
coincides with the x axis. Hence  = 0.
• Connect pt A with center C
of the circle and from the
shaded triangle determine
the radius R of the circle.
• Sketch the circle.

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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN
Procedure for Analysis
Principal strains
• Principal strains 1 and 2 are
determined from the circle as
the coordinates of pts B and
D ( = 0).
• Determine the orientation of the
plane on which 1 acts by
calculating 2p1, using trigonometry.
This angle is measured
counterclockwise from the radial
reference lines CA to CB.

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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Principal strains
• Remember that the rotation of p1,
must be in this same direction,
from the element’s reference axis x to the x’ axis.
• When 1 and 2 are indicated as being positive as
shown earlier, the element shown here will elongate
in the x’ and y’ directions as shown by the dashed
outline.

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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN
Procedure for Analysis
Maximum in-plane shear strain
• Average normal strain and half the
maximum in-plane shear strain
are determined from the circle
as the coordinates of pts E and F.
• Orientation of the plane on which
 max and  act can be
in  plane avg
determined from the circle by
calculating 2s1 using trigonometry.
This angle is measured clockwise
from the radial reference lines
CA to CF.
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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Maximum in-plane shear strain
• Remember that the rotation of
ps1, must be in this same
direction, from the element’s
reference axis x to the x’ axis.
Strains on arbitrary plane
• Normal and shear strain components x’ and x’y’ for
a plane specified at an angle , can be obtained
from the circle using trigonometry to determine the
coordinates of pt P.

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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN
Procedure for Analysis
Strains on arbitrary plane
• To locate P, the known angle  of
the x’ axis is measured on the
circle as 2. This measurement is
made from the radial reference line CA to the radial
reference line CA to CP. Remember that
measurements for 2 on the circle must be in the
same direction as for the x’ axis.
• If value of y’ is required, it can be determined by
calculating the  coordinate of pt Q. The line CQ lies
180 away from CP and thus represents a rotation of
90 of the x’ axis.
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4
State of plane strain at a pt represented by the
components x = 250(10-6), y = –150(10-6), and
xy = 120(10-6). Determine the principal strains
and the orientation of the element.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)
Construction of the circle
The  and /2 axes are
established as shown. Note
that the positive /2 axis must
be directed downward so that
counterclockwise rotations of
the element correspond to
counterclockwise rotation
around the circle, and vice
versa. Center of the circle is located on the axis at
 avg 
250   150 6
2
 
10  50 106  
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)
Construction of the circle
Since xy/2 = 60(10-6), the
reference pt A ( = 0) has
coordinates [250(10-6), 60(10-6)].
From shaded triangle, radius
of circle is CA:

R  250  50  60 10   208.810 

2 2 6 6

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)
Principal strains
The  coordinates of pts B and D
represent the principal strains.
They are
  6

1  50  208.8 10  259 10   6

 2  50  208.8106   159106 

The direction of the positive principal strain 1 is

defined by the counterclockwise 2p1, measured from
the radial reference lines CA to CB.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)
Principal strains
We have tan 2 p1  60
250  50
 p1  8.35
Hence, the side dx’ of the
element is oriented
counterclockwise 8.35.
This also defines the direction of 1.
The deformation of the element is also shown.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.5
State of plane strain at a pt represented by the
components x = 250(10-6), y = –150(10-6), and
xy = 120(10-6). Determine the maximum in-plane
shear strains and orientation of the element.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.5 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
Half the maximum in-plane shear strain and average
normal strain are represented by the coordinates of
pts E and F on the circle. From coordinates of pt E
 x' y ' 
 
max
in - plane
 208.8 10 6
2
 x' y '   41810 
max
6
in - plane

 avg  50106 

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.5 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
To orientate the element, determine the clockwise
angle 2s1 from the circle,
2 s1  90  28.35
 s1  36.6
Since shear strain defined from pt E
on the circle has a positive value and
average normal strain is also positive,
corresponding positive shear stress
and positive average normal stress
deform the element into dashed
shape as shown.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.6
State of plane strain at a pt represented by an
element having the components x = –300(10-6),
y = –100(10-6), and xy = 100(10-6). Determine the
state of strain on an element oriented 20 clockwise
from this reported position.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.6 (SOLN)
Construction of circle
The  and /2 axes are
established as shown.
Center of circle is on
the  axis at

 avg 


 300  100  6
2


10  200  
10 6
 
Coordinates of reference pt A is [300(10-6), 50(10-6)].

  
Radius CA determined from shaded triangle,
R  300  2002  502 106  111.8 106  
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.6 (SOLN)
Strains on inclined elements
As we orient element 20 clockwise, first establish a
radial line CP, 2(20) = 40 clockwise, measured from
CA ( = 0). Coordinates of pt P (x’, x’y’/2) are
obtained from the geometry of the circle.
1 50 
  tan    26.57
 300  200 

Thus x '    200  111.8 cos 13.43  10 6
   
309 10  
6

 111.8 sin 13.4310 

 x' y ' 6
2
 x ' y '  52.0106 
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.6 (SOLN)
Strains on inclined elements
Normal strain y’ can be determined from the 
coordinate of pt Q on the circle. Why?
   
 y '  200  111.8 cos13.43 106  91.3 106

As a result of these strains, the

element deforms relative to the
x’, y’ axes as shown.

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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

• Assume three principal strains

(max, int, min) cause elongations
along the x’, y’ and z’ axes as shown.
• Use Mohr’s circle to determine
maximum in-plane shear strain for
the x’-y’, x’-z’ and y’-z’ planes.

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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

• From the circles drawn,

we see that the absolute
maximum shear strain is
determined from the circle
having the larges radius.
For this condition,

 abs   max   min 10 - 14

max

and
 max   min
 avg  10 - 15
2
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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

Plane strain
• When material subjected to
principal in-plane strains of the
same sign, the largest circle has
a radius of R = (x’z’)max/2.
 abs   x ' z '    max
max max

• This value represents the

absolute maximum shear
strain for the material. It is
larger than the maximum
in-plane shear strain.
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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

Plane strain
• For material subjected to
principal in-plane strains of
opposite signs,

 abs   x ' y ' 

max max
  max   min

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 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN
IMPORTANT
• General 3-D state of strain at a pt can be
represented by an element oriented so that only
three principal strains act on it.
• From this orientation, the orientation of the element
representing the absolute maximum shear strain
can be obtained by rotating the element 45 about
the axis defining the direction of int.
• The absolute maximum shear strain will be larger
that the maximum in-plane shear strain whenever
the in-plane principal strains have the same sign,
the absolute maximum shear strain will act out of
the plane.
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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.7
Plane of strain at a pt is represented by the strain
components x = 400(10-6), y = 200(10-6),
xy = 150(10-6). Determine the maximum in-plane
shear strain and the absolute maximum shear strain.

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.7 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane strain
Using Mohr’s circle method, center of circle is on the
-axis at
 avg 
 400  200 6
2
10  100 106    
Since xy/2 = 75(10-6), reference pt has coordinates A
[–400(10-6), 75(10-6)]. Radius of circle is

R  400  100  75 10   30910 

2 2 6 6

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.7 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane strain
Computing in-plane principal strains,
we have
   
 max   100  309 106  209 106
 min   100  309106   409106 

From the circle, maximum in-plane shear strain is

 max
in - plane
   
  max   min  209   409 106  618 106

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 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.7 (SOLN)
Absolute maximum shear strain
From the results, we have max = 209(10-6),
int = 409(10-6). The 3 Mohr’s circles plotted for
element orientations about each of the x’, y’ and z’
axes are shown. We see that the principal in-plane
strains have opposite signs, and maximum in-plane
shear strain is also the absolute
maximum shear strain

 abs
in - plane
 
 618 106

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