Preparation of data using

SPSS
Naresh Chauhan
 Research and Scientific Methods

• Scientific method is a systematic body of procedures and

techniques applied in carrying out investigation or
experimentation targeted at obtaining new knowledge.
 Categories of research

• Empirical and theoretical research

• Basic and applied
• Health research triangle
• Correlational and experimental research
 Empirical research

• Qualitative or/and quantitative

 Variable
 Variability
• Sample or population
• measurement of variables
• estimation of population parameters
• statistical testing of hypotheses, or estimating the extent to
which ‘chance’ alone may account for
 Basic & Applied research

• a) Basic research – It involves a search for knowledge without

a defined goal of utility or specific purpose.

• Applied research – It is problem oriented & directed toward a

defined & purposeful end. It is frequently generated by a
perceived need & is directed toward the solution of an
existing problem
Health research triangle!
 Scientific foundations of research

• 1) Order
• 2) Inference & chance
• 3) Maintenance of probability
• 4) Hypotheses
 Order :

• Research employs an organized observation of entities or

events which are classified or ordered on the basis of
common properties & behaviours. The commonality among
the observations help in predictions which carry to the
ultimate become laws
 Inference & chance:
• Reasoning or inference is the force of advance in research.
There are two distinct approaches in the development of
inferences

• DEDUCTIVE – It moves from the general to the specific. Hence

it does not allow for the element of chance. It is not used
much in health research.

INDUCTIVE – It moves from specific to the general. There is

extrapolation of results from a sample to the target
population. Health research depends almost entirely upon
inductive reasoning.
 Maintenance of probability:

• Maintaining a very high probability & eliminating the chance

occurrence is critical to ensure the validity of a research.
Techniques used to maintain high probability
• 1. Representative sampling
• 2. Randomization in selection of study groups
• 3. Maintenance of comparison groups as controls
• 4. Blinding procedures
• 5. Statistical methods
 Hypothesis:

• Hypothesis is defined as a presumption, supposition or

assumption derived either out of observation or reflection.
Hypotheses are carefully constructed statements generated
from inferences & they use argument of induction.
Analytic studies
BASIC ELEMENTS OF STUDY DESIGN
 Procedure in descriptive study

• Defining pop to b studied

• Defining disease under study
• Desc…dis by time, person n place
• Measurement of disease
• Comparing with known indices
• Formulation of etiological hypothesis Descriptive study
 Def the population

• Age , sex, occupation, culture, characteristics n

similar infor
• Pop shd b large enough
• Stable of migration
• No visitors n relative
Provide denominator for calculating rates,
measurement of frequency, distribution n
determination of disease
 Def the disease under study

• Precise n valid
• Operational def…. Identified n measured
►Describing the disease
• Time distribution…time, place , person
• Time trends or fluctuations
 Short term fluctuation
 Periodic fluctuation
 Long term fluctuation