Alternating Current

Fundamentals
 Course Objective

 Upon completion of this module the

participant should be able to perceive basics
of alternating (sinusoidal) voltage and
current
 Understanding the sinusoidal steady state
circuit analysis and three phase supply
 Intended takeaway by
participants

 Description of alternating current quantities

 Single phase alternating current circuit –
behavior of resistance, inductance ,
capacitance and their combinations
 Concept of power and power factor
 Three phase supply, phase sequence,
star/delta connections
 Contents

 Pre-assessment test
 Fundamentals
 Description of alternating quantities
 Phase angle
 Voltage, current and power
 A.C circuit components
 Power factor
 Three phase supply
 Post- assessment test
 Fundamentals

 A.C. Stands for alternating current which is

sinusoidal in nature
 It can be represented in three forms
 Waveform representation
 Equation
 Phasor representation
 Wave Form Representation

 Completely described by
 Maximum value
 Frequency or time period
 Starting phase
 Mathematical Representation

 V = Vmax * sin (2*pi*f*t + theta)

Where,
 Vmax is the amplitude of sine wave

 f is the frequency of sine wave in Hz

 t is time in seconds

 Theta is the starting angle in radians

 Phasor Representation
 Phasor is rotating
vector
 The length of phasor
is equal to amplitude
of sinusoidally
varying quantity Theta
 The angle the phasor
makes with positive W Radians / Sec
X axis is the starting
angle theta
 Phasor representation

• The phasor rotates in

anti clock wise direction
at a constant speed of
ω = 2 * pi * f radian/sec
Theta
• The projection of this
phasor on Y axis
represents the W Radians / Sec
instantaneous magnitude
of sinusoidal quantity
 Description of Alternating
Quantities
 Peak value or amplitude (Vmax)
 Average value - (2/pi) * Vmax
 Root mean square (R.M.S) value
Vmax/sqrt(2) = 0.707 Vmax
 Form factor = (R.M.S. Value)/(Avg value)
= 1.11 for pure sine wave
 Phase Angle

 Two sinusoidal quantities having same frequencies

would maintain a constant angle between them at
any time.
 If this angle is zero then the two are said to be in
phase.
 If the angle is pi radians or 180 degrees then they
are said to be out of phase.
 The quantity which is ahead in anticlockwise
direction is said to be leading and the other is said
to be lagging by the angle between then.
Phase angle
A Vector A leads
Vector B by theta
B Degrees
Theta

Vector B lags
behind Vector A by
theta degrees
 Voltage, Current and Power

 When the voltage is sinusoidal, the current is also

sinusoidal having the same frequency.
 Instantaneous power is the product of instantaneous
voltage and instantaneous current.
 It can be mathematically shown that the
instantaneous power is also varying sinusoidally
but with double the frequency.
 A.C. Circuit Components

 There are three basic

constituents of any
A.C. Circuit namely…
 Resistance
 Inductance
 Capacitance
 Resistance

 It is the opposition to flow of current.

 The instantaneous magnitude of current is
given by dividing instantaneous magnitude
of voltage by value of resistance in ohms.
I = v / r …..(ohms law).
 The current is also sinusoidal and is in phase
with voltage.
 Voltage current and power in a purely resistive circuit
40.0

35.0
POWER
30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0
VOLTAGE

5.0 CURRENT
0.0

-5.0

-10.0

-15.0
 Power in
Purely Resistive Circuit
 As seen from the graph, the instantaneous power is
sinusoidally varying with double the frequency.
 Power is either positive or zero at every instance
but never negative.
 This indicates that the power always flows from
source to circuit and gets dissipated in the circuit (in
the form of heat).
 This power is called as Active power (P)
 Inductance
 Inductance is a coil. It has a capacity to
store energy in the form of magnetism.
 Inductance has an inherent property to
oppose any sudden change in current.
 Instantaneous magnitude of current is given
by.
i   v dt
 The current lags behind voltage by 90
degrees.
 Voltage, current and power in a purely inductive circuit

20.0

POWER
15.0

10.0
VOLTAGE

5.0
CURRENT
0.0

-5.0

-10.0

-15.0

-20.0
 Power in
Purely Inductive Circuit
• As seen from the graph, the instantaneous
power is sinusoidally varying with double
the frequency.
• Power is both positive and negative and is
symmetric about time axis
• This indicates that the power flows from
source to circuit and also from circuit to
source with net value being zero. As such it
is called as reactive power (Q)
 Capacitance
 A capacitor has 2 plates which can store electrical
energy in the form of charge on the plates.
 Capacitance has an inherent property to oppose
any sudden change in voltage.
 Instantaneous magnitude of current is given by the
formula.
dv
iC
dt
 For pure capacitance current leads the voltage by
90 degrees.
 Voltage current and power in a purely capacitive circuit

15.0
POWER
10.0
VOLTAGE

5.0
CURRENT
0.0

-5.0

-10.0

-15.0
 Power in
Purely Capacitive Circuit
• As seen from the graph, the instantaneous power
is sinusoidally varying with double the frequency.
• Power is both positive and negative and is
symmetric about time axis
• Net value of power transfer is zero.
• For the same supply the instantaneous power in
inductor and capacitor is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction at any instance.
 Voltage and Current Phases
I

V V V
I
I

Purely resistive Purely Inductive Purely capacitive

circuit circuit circuit
 Power in Circuits
Containing R, L and C
 In such circuits both active power(p) and reactive
powers(q) are transferred.
 The two transfers are independent of each other.
 Resistance is responsible for active power transfer
from source to load. (P = Vr * Ir ).
 Inductor is assumed to absorb reactive power from
source.(Q = VL * I L positive).
 Capacitor is assumed to deliver reactive power to
the source. (Q = VC* I C negative).
 Voltage and Current Phases
I

V V

Inductive circuit Capacitive circuit

(inductance + Resistance) ( Capacitance + resistance)
 Components of Current

 In case of circuits containing combinations of

R L C the total current drawn from the source
can be divided into 2 components
Component in phase with voltage
Component 90 degree out of phase
 The first component is responsible for active
power while the other for reactive power
 Active and Reactive Power
 The power drawn from source by a resistive
element is called as active power. The power
transfer is unidirectional from source to resistance.
 The power transaction in an inductive and
capacitive element is called as reactive power.
 The inductive power and capacitive power flows in
opposite direction at any point of time. When both
are present, the total reactive power would be
difference of two and in the direction of the
dominant member.
 Power triangle
Apparent power (S) is vector sum of P and Q
and is given by the formula s2 = P2 + Q2

Apparent Power
 VI Reactive Power = VI Sin 


Active Power = VI Cos 
 Power Factor
 Power factor is the ratio of active power to
apparent power.
 It can be calculated by formula.

P.F. = cos ( ).
 Power factor can be unity, lagging or leading
depending upon whether the load is resistive,
inductive or capacitive.
 Importance of Power Factor

Active Power = VI Cos 

•For given voltage, and the same power to be
delivered, the current drawn is inversely
proportional to p.f.
Power factor is very important for the supplier
as well as the customer.
 Causes of Low Power Factor

 The most popular motor , the induction

motor, works on lagging p.f. and value is
especially low when under loaded.
 Chokes in lamps are having lagging p.f.
 There are hardly any loads which work on
leading p.f. As such the reduced p.f. due to
inductive loads cannot be compensated.
 Disadvantages of Low P.F.
 Large KVA rating of equipments like alternator,
transformer, switchgears etc).
 Greater conductor size – more current to be
carried for the same active power transfer.
 Large copper losses in supply and distribution
system, resulting into poor efficiency.
 Reduced handling capacity of because reactive
component of current prevents the full utilization
of installed capacity.
 Supply company will charge the customer at
higher rate if the power factor is less.
 How to Improve P.F.
 The most popular method is use of capacitor
banks in parallel to the load. The method is
cost effective, efficient and easy to apply.
 Synchronous motors when over excited,
work on leading power factor.
 Use of phase advancer for induction motor.
It makes the motor to work even on leading
p.f. The method is costly and as such used
only for high rating motors.
 Three Phase Supply

Why three phase? :

 Generator size smaller that the equivalent
single phase generator
 Copper saving in transmission
 Three phase machines are generally less
costly than equivalent single phase machines
Three phase supply
 Phase Sequence
 It is the sequence in which the voltage
quantities attain a particular value. The
required phase sequence is R - Y - B.
 It is absolutely necessary that the phase
sequence be properly maintained using
color coding.
 If the phase sequence reverses, problems
like motors moving in opposite direction,
will occur.
 Three Phase Connections

 The most popular are star and delta

Star Delta
 Voltage, Current and Power

Star Delta

VL =sqrt(3) * Vph VL =Vph

IL = Iph IL = sqrt(3) * Iph

P = 3 Vph Iph cos (theta) P = 3 Vph Iph cos (theta)

Switchgear
Electrical distribution
 Distribution system in India
11 / 132 KV 400 / 132 or 66 KV
11
KV 132 / 400 or 750 KV

Gen
T r a n s m i s s i o n
Step up 1
Step up 2 Step down 1
Utilization

Consumer 1 Step down 3 Step down 2

Consumer 2
Consumer 3
Distribution 66 / 11or 22 KV
Consumer 4
11or 22 KV/ 433 V, 3ph, Star
 Sub-Stations
Sub station may be defined as an assembly of
apparatus which connects the power house and a
general consumer.

Different types of Sub Stations :-

•Step-up sub-station
•Primary grid sub-station
•Secondary grid sub-station
•Distribution sub-station
•Bulk supply sub-station
•Industrial sub-station
 Sub-Stations
Essential Equipment of a Sub station :-
1. Transformer
2. Circuit Breakers
3. Protective Fuses
4. Control Gear (CT, PT, Relays etc.)
5. Current carrying equipment
6. Insulators
7. Cables and terminations
8. Switch boards
9. Control Room
Incoming Lightning Arrestor Arcing Horn Contacts
through
XLPE Cable
Conductor
H.T. Step-down
Transformer

L.T.

Insulators

G.O.D.

Single line diagram of a generalized H.T. Sub station :-

 FUSE
(As a protecting device)

Why a fuse blows ?

Because of ……….

1) Extra Voltage ?
2) Extra Current ?
3) Extra Power ?
4) Extra Energy ?
5) Transients ?
6) ????????
 FUSE
(As a protecting device)

There are two types of fuses.

1) Re-wireable Fuse or Kit-Kat Fuse

2) HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) Fuse
1) Push Type
2) Screw Type
 FUSE
(As a protecting device)

HRC Fuse
Indicator Fuse Wire
 Tinned Copper Fuse wire Table

S.W.G. Current rating of Fuse in Fusing Current Approx.

Amps.
40 1.5 3
39 2.5 4
38 3.0 5
37 3.5 6
36 4.5 7
35 5.0 8
34 5.5 9
33 6.0 10
32 7.0 11
31 8.0 13
30 8.5 13
29 10 16
28 12 18
27 13 23
 Tinned Copper Fuse wire Table (contd….)

Current rating of Fuse in Fusing Current Approx.

S.W.G. Amps.

26 14 28
25 15 30
24 17 33
23 20 38
22 24 48
21 29 58
20 34 70
19 38 81
18 45 106
17 65 135
16 73 166
15 78 197
14 102 230
13 130 295
 What is switchgear ?

Switchgear is a general term covering a wide

range of equipment concerned with switching
and protection of electrical circuit
Switchgear is an essential part of power system
and also that of any electrical circuit.
The switching devices are used to make or
break the circuits in healthy or in abnormal
conditions
 Switchgear classification
depending on the voltage Rating and local
condition
•Indoor:- V<= 33 K.V
•Outdoor :- V >= 33 KV preferred
But in heavily polluted areas, indoor equipment
may be preferred even for higher voltages
• Indoor Housed in a metal casing, Metal clad
switchgear
•Outdoor Installed under sky
 Fault
A fault in an electrical equipment is defined as
a defect in its electrical circuit due to which the
current is diverted to the un-intended path.

Generally caused by breaking of conductors or

failure of insulation

Other causes
•Mechanical failure
•Accidents
•Excessive stresses
 Fault classification
•Open circuit - most common fault
•Single line to ground fault - most common fault
•Line to line fault
•Double line to ground fault
•Three phase fault – Dead short circuit
•Three phase to ground fault – Rare fault

Faults cannot be eliminated but can be minimized

What are abnormal conditions ?

 Voltage and current unbalance

 Over voltages
 Under frequency
 Temp. rise
 Instability
 Reversal of power
 Power swings
 Switchgear components
 Switches
 Fuses
 Circuit breakers
 Relays
 Isolators
 Lightening arresters
 Current transformers
 Potential transformers
 Functioning of switchgear
Some of the abnormal conditions are not severe
enough. Relaying is arranged to give an alarm.

In condition of continuation of an abnormality,

fault can be serious and faulty part should be
disconnected. This is performed by protective
relaying

The protective relays are connected in secondary

circuit of CT and PT. The relay senses the
abnormal condition and closes the trip circuit of
the associated circuit breaker.
 Transients
During the fault the voltage and currents undergo
continuous changes and the phenomenon is
called as transient. Circuit breaker operates in this
transient period.

Transient period-
a) Sub transient period (CB does not operate)
b) Transient period
 What is circuit Breaker ?
A circuit Breaker is a switching and current
interrupting device in a switchgear.The circuit
breaker serves two basic purposes

A] Switching during normal operating

conditions for the purpose of operations and
maintenance

B] Switching during abnormal conditions such

as short circuits and interrupting fault currents
 What is circuit breaker ?

Definition by NEMA - National Electrical

Manufacturers Association
A circuit breaker is defined in NEMA
standards as a device designed to open and close
a circuit by non-automatic means, and to open the
circuit automatically on a predetermined over
current without injury to itself when properly
applied within its rating.
 What is circuit breaker ?

ANSI American National Standards Institute.

Definition: A circuit breaker is defined in ANSI
standards as a mechanical switching device,
capable of making, carrying and breaking
currents under normal circuit conditions.
Also capable of making and carrying breaking
currents for a specified time under specified
abnormal circuit conditions such as those of a
short circuit.
 Circuit breaker continued……
Circuit breakers are switching and current
interrupting devices. CB comprises of a set
of fixed and movable contacts.
The contacts are separated by means of an
operating mechanism.
The separation of current carrying contacts
produces an arc. The arc is extinguished by a
suitable medium and circuit breakers are
classified according to the medium used for
arc quenching.
 Circuit breaker continued……
Different types of circuit breakers

1. Miniature circuit breaker MCB

2. Molded case circuit breaker MCCB
3. Minimum oil CB MOCB
4. Bulk oil CB BOCB
5. Air circuit breaker ACB
6. Air Blast Circuit Breaker ABCB
7. Earth leakage CB ELCB
8. Sulphur Hexa Fluoride SF6
 TECHNOLOGIES IN HV SWITCHGEAR
--- AN OVERVIEW

TECHNOLOGY YEAR
BULK OIL 1910
MINIMUM OIL 1930
AIR BLAST 1930
SF6 (DUAL PRESSURE) 1955
SF6 (SINGLE PRESSURE) 1965
VACUUM 1965
BULK OIL CIRCUIT
BREAKER 1910
MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT
BREAKER 1930
AIR BLAST CIRCUIT
BREAKER 1930
SF6 GAS CIRCUIT BREAKER 1965
VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER 1965
 Classification based on Voltage
levels

Air Circuit Breaker Low voltages

Vacuum CB Medium voltages
up to 66 KV
SF6 CB Medium to Extra
high voltages
 Moulded Case Circuit
Breaker MCCB
•Full range of add-on accessories including:
•-auxiliary contacts
• shunt trips
• Under voltage releases.
• Electrical control units for remote operation
• Earth Leakage Units- Manual or Auto-changeover systems
• Rear connections/adaptors -
•Terminal covers
 Moulded Case Circuit
Breaker MCCB
Designed with ease of installation for the user in mind.
•Shunt trip- Energized locally or remotely will instantaneously
activate the circuit breaker.
•Under voltage release - Opens the circuit breaker when the
control voltage falls .
•Control units fixed to the front of the circuit breaker this device
enables remote opening and closing of the unit. Locking facility
available.
•Rotary Handles - direct or door mounted, removable and/or
dis-engageable, all versions also pad lockable as standard.
 Moulded Case Circuit
Breaker MCCB
•Earth Leakage Units - this device offers personal
protection against both isolation, overload and short circuit
faults.
•Manual or Auto-changeover systems -To ensure
continuous power supply to a facility with minimum
interruption.
•Rear connections- Full range of connections studs for bar
or cables with lugs, extenders and connections to improve
the cable termination capacity.
•Terminal covers for both 3 and 4 pole units
Moulded Case Circuit
BreakerMCCB
 MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER(MCB)

•
MCB is used for overload & short circuit protection of feeders
having lower current rating e.g. lighting & distributing feeders.
It is available from 0.5Amp to 100 Amp
1 pole of MCB

Magnetic coil for S/C Protection

 MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER(MCB)
• MCB can be fitted with accessories like:
•U/V release
•Shunt release
•Auxiliary contact block
•Trip alarm contact
(not all the accessories can be used together)
MCB can be available in 3 tripping characteristics:B,C,D

TYPE Magnetic setting Application

(non-adjustable)
B 3-5in For sensitive circuits

C 5-10in For general lighting fans, socket outlet

circuit
D 10-20in Switching of motors, capacitors, control
transformers etc.
 MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER(MCB)
Advantages of MCB:
• It can be used by skilled/unskilled workmen
• The overload and short circuit settings can not be tampered
since they are non adjustable.
•Mechanism of MCB is trip free
•It can be used as a functional switch
•MCB can be used as an isolator
•It’s a fully enclosed unit and hence no ageing problem
•MCB is a cost effective device
 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
•An earth leakage circuit breaker gives protection against direct and
indirect contact.
•It is available in 2 pole (for single phase loads) and 4 poles (for 3
phase loads)
•ELCB can not give O/L and S/C protection
•During earth leakage, the small leakage current returning back to
earth through earthing conductor or human body (not flowing back
through ELCB) causes tripping of ELCB.
 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
ELCB CATEGORIES:
•30mA – For personal protection (e.g. Domestic application)
•100mA – Installation protection in Industries
•300mA – Installation protection in industries having inherently high
leakage currents.

•An ELMCB - combination of ELCB & MCB modules gives O/L,S/C

and earth leakage protection
 Motor protection circuit breaker (MPCB)
ADVANTAGES:
•Reduced let through energy due to current limiting principle results
into:
•Reduction in electrodynamic forces on the bus bars resulting
into increased spacing between bus bar supports and/ or
decreased distances between two bus bars
•Reduction of thermal stresses.The welding of contacts of the
contactors can be avoided.
•Higher rating of contactors can be avoided
 Motor protection circuit breaker (MPCB)
Applications of MPCB’s:
•They can be used for switching, control and protection of motor in
machines with single motor and not requiring remote switching
•Can be used in machine incorporating multiple motors as incomers
as well as for protection and control of individual motor
• A contactor in conjunction with a MPCB enhances system life,
provides facility for remote switching and also gives under-voltage
protection
•MPCB’s are also suitable for DC switching
•Fuse monitoring
 Motor protection circuit breaker (MPCB)
Need for MPCB?
•The MCCB has some limitations while used for motor
switching:
•It cannot provide effective protection in overload rage (100%-
200%)
•Ambient temperature compensation may not available
•The mechanical life is not very high
•Load line bios
•And also TYPE 2 Co-ordination requires special attention
•Nuisance tripping during starting
•AC 3 switching capabilities
 Motor protection circuit breaker (MPCB)
Need for MPCB?
•The MCCB has some limitations while used for motor
switching:
•Current limiting principle

Hence motor protection MCCB can only provide back up

protection fro motor and starter equipment.

MPCB has switching capacity of AC-3 rating, having an

adjustable thermal overload release and also suitable short
circuit threshold.

It provides short circuit protection through an instantaneous

release set of 12In
 CHANGING TRENDS
in Switchgear technologies
HIGH RELIABILITY.
LONG MAINTENANCE-FREE LIFE.
USAGE OF LOW ENERGY MECHANISMS.
AIR INSULATED TO GAS INSULATED SW. GR.
HIGHLY INTEGRATED SWITCH-GEAR.
CONTROLLED SWITCHING.
EXTREMELY LOW COST.
VERY SHORT DELIVERY TIMES.
SPEEDY NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENTS.
EXTENSIVE USE OF COMPUTERISED SOFTWARES
FOR NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENTS.
 Switchgear components
Isolators- Isolators are disconnecting switches
that are used for disconnecting the circuit in no
load (no current) condition. They are installed near
circuit breakers.

Lightning arrestors- They divert the over voltages

to earth and protect the equipment from over
voltages.

CT s and PT s- These are used for transforming

the voltage and currents to a lower value for the
purpose of measurement , protection and control.
Switchgear components cont-

Electrical interlocks- They are provided to ensure

the following sequencing of operation.
While opening * Circuit breaker
* Isolator
* Earthing switch

While closing * Earthing switch

* Isolator
* Circuit breaker
Indicators- Indications are provides on panels by
means Of panel mountable lamps.
 INSTRUMENT
TRANSFORMERS
These transformers are designed for
• Measurement of high Voltage & high
Current.
• Isolation of the circuit.
Their Salient feature is accurate
transformation ratio (K)
 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CT)
These are used with low range ammeters (as Shown)
to measure very high current in the main circuits.
Primary of CT Secondary of CT

Load

This is a step up type

of transformer. The
Secondary of this
A transformer should
never be left open
under any
Shorting Switch
circumstances.
 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (PT)
They are used with standard low range voltmeters usually (110 V
or 230 V) for the measurement of very high voltage in main
circuit.
Secondary of PT

V Load

This is a step down

type of transformer.
 Relays

Definition :- Relay is a device which detects an

abnormal fault condition by constantly measuring
the electrical quantities which are different under
normal and faulty conditions.
 Trip Coil
Circuit
Breaker Battery

Tripping
circuit

Relay
C.T. Relay operating
Coil circuit

Sensing
circuit Essential parts of a Relay System
1
 Operation of a Relay
Trip Coil
Circuit
Breaker
Battery

C.T. Relay Coil

Healthy system
 Operation of a Relay
Trip Coil
Circuit
Breaker
Battery

C.T. Relay Coil

Fault occurs
 Operation of a Relay
Trip Coil
Circuit
Breaker
Battery

C.T. Relay Coil

senses & operates
the fault

Fault
 Operation of a Relay
Trip Coil
Circuit
Breaker
Battery

NO gets closed

C.T. Relay Coil

senses operates
the fault
Fault
 Operation of a Relay
Trip Coil
Circuit
Breaker +
I Battery sends
current to the
_ Trip Coil

C.T. Relay Coil

Fault
 Trip Coil attracts the plunger
Circuit
Breaker
I +
Battery
_

C.T. Relay Coil

Fault
Operation of a Relay
Sparking Operation of a Relay
Trip Coil attracts the plunger

Circuit +
Breaker Battery
breaks
_
the circuit

C.T. Relay Coil

Faulty circuit is isolated

 Trip Coil
Circuit
Breaker Battery

Tripping
circuit

C.T. Relay
Coil
Relay
operating
Sensing circuit
circuit
3 ph.supply

Main contacts Aux.contacts

Coil of
the
contactor

NO NC
3 ph.supply
Main contacts Aux.contacts

Coil of
the
contactor

NO NC
3 ph.supply
Main contacts Aux.contacts

Coil of
the
contactor

NO NC
 Coil of the
contactor
3 ph.supply
Main contacts Aux.contacts

To the NO closes and NC opens

Load
Relays & Protection
 An overview of power system

Electrical distribution
• Electric power system consists of three
principal components
1. Power station.
2. Transmission lines.
3. Distribution system.
• The transmission line are the connecting link
between the power station and the distribution
systems.
 Distribution system
• A distribution system connects all the individual
loads in a given locality to the transmission.
11 11 / 132 KV 132 / 400 or 750 KV 400 / 132 or 66 KV
KV
Gen
T r a n s m i s s i o n
Step up 1
Step up 2 Step down 1
Utilization

Consumer 1 Step down 3 Step down 2

Consumer 2

Consumer 3
66 / 11or 22 KV
Distribution
Consumer 4
11or 22 KV/ 433 V, 3ph, Star
 Relays

Definition :- Relay is a device which detects an

abnormal fault condition by constantly
measuring the electrical quantities which are
different under normal and faulty conditions.
Properties of a RELAY system
 Properties of a RELAY system
continued..

1 ) Speed :- Relay system should be as fast as

possible.
2) Selectivity :- Only nearest Circuit Breaker
should operate such that minimum part of the
system should get disconnected.
3) Sensitivity :- The relay should operate for a
low value of actuating quantity.
 Properties of a RELAY system
continued..

4) Reliability :- Reliable.
5) Simplicity :- The system should be simple in
construction and design. Easy for maintenance.
Minimum no. of relays and contacts should be
used.
6) Economy :- Too much of protection is also
bad
 Types of relays

1) Electro-magnetic type:- Moving plunger,

Moving Iron, Balanced beam- ac and dc.
2) Induction type :- Motoring action- ac only.
3) Thermal type :- Use of by-metallic strip
4) Physico-electric type :- Buchholz’s relay-
gas operated.
5) Static relays :- Thermionic valves,
transistors, using magnetic amplifiers, photo
devices etc.
 Operation of relay

Trip Coil
Circuit
Breaker
Battery

C.T. Relay Coil

 Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
• Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of
an armature being attracted to the poles of an
electromagnet Or a plunger being drawn into a
solenoid. Operates on D.C. or A.C. quantities.

• Types of electromagnetic attraction relays.

1) Attracted armature type relay.
2) Solenoid type relay.
3) Balanced beam type relay.
 Electromagnetic Attraction Relays…

Attracted armature type relay

• Under normal operating conditions the currents
through the relay coil c is such that counterweight
holds the armature in the position shown.
Electromagnetic Attraction Relays…

Solenoid type relay

• Under normal operating conditions ,the current
through the relay coil C is such that it holds the
plunger by gravity or spring in the shown position.
 Electromagnetic Attraction Relays…

Balanced beam type relay

• Under normal operating conditions the current

through the relay coil is such that the beam is held
in the horizontal position by the spring.
 Induction Relay

• Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the

principle of induction motor and are widely used
For protecting relaying purposes involving a.c.
Quantities only.
 Induction Relay
• Induction relay essentially consists of a pivoted
aluminium disc placed in two alternating magnetic
fields of the same frequency but displaced in time
and space.
 Differential Relays

• General relays are less sensitive because they

cannot make correct distinction between heavy
load conditions and minor fault conditions.
• Differential relay is one that operates when the
phasor difference of two or more similar electrical
quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.

• Two fundamental systems of differential or

balanced protection
1. Current balance protection.
2. Voltage balance protection
 Current differential relay

• It compares the current entering a section of the

system with the current leaving the section.under
normal operating condition the two current are equal.
 Current differential relay

• The difference between the incoming and outgoing

currents is arranged to flow through the operating
coil of the relay.

• Under normal operating condition the current in

the two secondaries of the CT’s are equal.
 Voltage balance differential relay
• The secondaries of current transformers are
connected in series with a relay in such a way that
under normal conditions their induced e.m.f.’s are in
opposition.
• Under normal operating condition equal current
(I1=I2) flow in both primary windings.
 Protection of alternators
• Important faults which may occur on an alternator
are.

1. Failure of prime-mover
2. Failure of field
3. Over current
4. Over speed
5. Over voltage
6. Unbalanced loading
7. Stator winding faults
 Differential protection of alternator

• The form of protection is also known as Merz-

Price circulating current scheme.
 Differential protection of alternator

• The secondaries of each set of current transformers

are connected in star .The two neutral points and the
corresponding terminals of the two star groups being
connected together by means of a four-core pilot
cable.

• Relays are connected across equipotential points of

the three pilot wires.

• Current at both ends of each winding will be equal

and hence the currents in the secondaries of two
CT’s connected in any phase will also equal.
 Differential protection of alternator

• In healthy condition balanced circulating current

flows through the pilot wires and no current flows
through the operating coil.

• When an earth fault or phase to phase fault

occur then the differential current flows through
the relay circuit operates the relay to trip the
circuit breaker.
 Protection of transformer

Common transformer faults

• Open circuits

• Overheating

• Winding short-circuits.
 Protection of transformer

• Providing protection against all kinds of

incipient faults such as insulation failure of
windings,core heating,fall of oil level due to leaky
joints.

• The upper elements closes an alarm circuit

during incipient faults whereas the lower element
is arranged to trip the circuit breaker in case of
severe internal faults.
 Protection of transformer
• It is usually installed in the pipe connecting the
conservator to the main tank.
Protection of transformer
 Transmission line protection

Differential pilot-wire protection

• Suppose a fault occur at point F on the line.This

will cause a greater current to flow through CT1
than through CT2

• Consequently their secondary voltage become unequal

and circulating current flows through the pilot wire and
relays.
Transmission line protection
Safety and earthing
Witness an Electric Shock
In February of
1996 this crazy
person climbed
up a utility pole
and grabbed a
high voltage
power line that
was energized at
16,000 volts.
Witness an Electric Shock

Ouch !!
That’s
Got To
Hurt !
Factors Impacting Electrical Shock
 Moisture
 Type and/or amount of voltage
 Earthing provision
 Personal protective equipment used
 Path of current through body
 Area of body in contact
 Pressure & duration of contact
 Physical size/condition/age of person
 Shock Hazards

 Improper use of
electrical equipment.
 extension cords

 multi-plug strips

 ungrounded

equipment
 operating equipment

without safety guards

 Shock Hazards
 Damaged electrical
equipment could be a shock
hazard.
 extension cords
 power cords
 electrophoresis unit
 Always inspect electrical
equipment for damage
before use.
 Do not use damaged
equipment.
 Shock Hazards
 Condensation and Spills
 May cause equipment to overheat,

smoke, or catch fire.

 Risk of electric shock.

 Condensation is more likely on

equipment located in cold rooms.

 Precautions
 Locate electrical equipment to

minimize the possibility of spills.

 If liquids are spilled onto electrical

equipment, shut off the power

immediately at the circuit breaker and
unplug the apparatus.
 Shock Hazards
 Repairing Electrical Equipment
 Only “qualified persons” should perform

repairs on electrical equipment.

 Qualified Person “A person familiar with the

construction and operation of the equipment

and the hazards involved.”
 Safety Precautions for Qualified Persons
 Turn off and unplug equipment before

attempting repairs.
 Energized components may exist within a

device even if it is turned-off and

disconnected from its power source.
 Readings Effects

1 mA or less Causes no sensation - not felt.

Safe Sensation of shock, not painful;
Current
Values 1 mA to 8 mA Individual can let go at will since
muscular control is not lost.
Painful shock; individual can let go at will
8 mA to 15 mA since muscular control is not lost.

Painful shock; control of muscles lost;

5 mA to 20 mA victim can not let go.

Unsafe 50 mA to 100
current Ventricular fibrillation - a heart condition
mA that can result in death - is possible.
values
100 mA to 200 Ventricular fibrillation occurs.
mA Severe burns, severe muscular
contractions.
200 mA and so severe that chest muscles clamp the
over
heart and stop it for the duration of the
shock.
Some interesting facts about human body
resistance :-
1) Fully dry skin : 70 K to 100 K. Per sq.cm.

2) Wet skin :- 700  to 1000  per sq. cm.

( Skin resistance is high whereas internal resistance
is low.)
Earth Resistance expected for different
voltages :-
1) for voltages less than 1000 V --- 6

2) for voltages less than 36 KV --- 2

3) for voltages greater than 36 KV --- 0.5 
 EARTHING ISI - 732 (1963)
Earthing is the most essential part any electrical
installation.
The meaning of Earthing or Grounding means to
connect the electrical equipment to the general
mass of Earth by a wire of negligible resistance.
Purpose of Earthing is to ensure at all times an
immediate discharge of electrical energy without
danger.
Connect the switches and the fuses always in
the phase and not in the neutral.
 Switch Fuse

Phase
Poor or Bad
Current
Earthing
passes through
the human
body
Neutral

Bad Earthing as R earth >> R body

Consider a machine which is not earthed.

Windings and coils inside the frame of machine carry

currents.
If insulation of the windings become weak, then current
may leak to the surface of frame.
Any person touching the frame, receives this current. This
current passes through his body , the circuit gets
completed through his body and if this leakage current is
high then it may prove to be dangerous.
 Switch Fuse

Phase
Current passes
through the
Earth wire and
not through the human
body
Neutral

Good Earthing as R earth << R body

Now what happens due to earthing?
Frame of the machine is to be connected to earth.
The resistance of this path is very very low.
If there is any leakage of current, then though person touches
to the frame, does not get a shock.
Because leakage current takes a low resistance path i.e the
path from frame to earth through a connection connecting
frame to earth, bypassing the person. The danger in touching
the frame is thus removed due to earthing.
Why Earthing is done? Summary--
1. To protect the human being from disability or death from shock
in case the human body comes into contact with the frame of
any electrical machinery, appliance or component which is
electrically charged due to leakage current or fault.
2. To maintain the line voltage constant.
3. To protect tall buildings and structures from atmospheric
lighting strikes.
4. To protect all machines, fed from overhead lines, from
atmospheric lighting.
5. To serve as the return conductor for telephone and traction
work. In such case, all complications in laying a separate wire
and the actual cost of the wire are thus saved.
 Funnel with
wire mesh

Pipe with 12 mm
dia. holes

Alternate layers of
Charcoal and Salt

PIPE EARTHING
 Funnel with
wire mesh

60 cm * 60 cm * 3.18 mm
Copper wire
Copper plate

Alternate layers of
Charcoal and Salt

PLATE
EARTHING
 Electricity can be helpful and also dangerous,
if not respected.
 Safety procedures must be followed in order to
protect everyone when dealing with electrical.
 The so-called low voltages can be extremely
dangerous because, all other factors being equal,
the degree of injury is proportional to the length
of time, the body is in the circuit.
• A severe shock can cause considerably more
damage to the body than is visible.
• LOW VOLTAGE DOES NOT IMPLY LOW
HAZARD!