CARDIOVASCULAR

PHYSIOLOGY
Laboratorium Fisiologi Hewan
Program Studi Pendidikan Biologi dan Biologi
FAKULTAS MATEMATIKA DAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN ALAM
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI JAKARTA

Dr. Rusdi, M.Biomed.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 The circulatory system moves nutrients, gases, and

wastes to and from cells
 Single-celled organisms obtain oxygen and nutrients
directly across the surface of the cell
 Multi-cellular organisms require methods for
transporting materials to and from cells which are
far removed from the external environment
 Overview
c. Reptiles
1. Functions of a
d. Birds
transport/circulatory
e. Mammals
system
2. Cellular transport
3. Invertebrate circulation
a. Gastrovascular cavity
b. Water vascular system
c. Open circulatory system
d. Closed circulatory system
4. Vertebrate circulation
a. Fishes
b. Amphibians
How Does Gravity Affect Blood
Circulation?
 As with all land animals, the giraffe and the corn
snake are constantly subject to the force of gravity
 The circulatory system keeps blood pumping despite
gravity’s pull

– Muscle contractions help

blood travel uphill in the
veins of a giraffe’s long
legs
– The wriggling of the corn
snake squeezes its veins
and increases circulation
The circulatory system associates
intimately with all body tissues

 Capillaries are microscopic blood vessels

 They form an intricate network among the tissue cells

Capillary

Red
blood
cell

Figure 23.1A
 No substance has to diffuse far to enter or leave a cell

Capillary

Diffusion of
INTERSTITIAL molecules
FLUID

Tissue
cell

Figure 23.1B
Circulatory System
 Function:
 brings oxygen, nutrients, and
hormones to cells, fights
infection, removes waste,
regulates body temp.
 The system that transports!!!

 Invertebrate Organs:
simple heart, vessels
 Vertebrate Organs:
◦ Heart, blood vessels (veins,
arteries and capillaries) and
blood

Where is your blood made?

Hint: It’s made in a different system.
Types of Pumps (Hearts)

 Peristaltic
 waves of muscular contraction along tubes drives blood
flow
 Chamber
 muscular pump divided into chambers which contract
 Pressure
 contraction of muscles external to the circulatory system
drives flow
Types of Channel Systems

 Closed circulatory systems

 blood carried in tubes (blood vessels)
 arteries, capillaries and veins

 vertebrates, cephalopods, echinoderms, annelids

 Open circulatory systems

 blood (hemolymph) passes from heart through short
arteries into open sinuses surrounding the tissues
 most mollusks and arthropods
Types of circulatory systems
 Animals that have a circulatory system have one
of two kinds:
 Open: fluid is circulated through an open body
chamber.
 Closed: fluid is circulated through blood vessels.
 Invertebrate Circulatory Systems

 Sponges and most Cnidarians use water from the

environment as a circulatory fluid
 Pseudocoelomate invertebrates (e.g., roundworms) use
the fluids of the body cavity for circulation
(=gastrovascular cavity)
 Larger animals have tissues that are several cells thick,
such that many cells are too far away from the body
surface or digestive cavity to exchange materials with
the environment
Types of Circulation

 Sponges
 intracellular spaces
 allows water to flow through

 Nematodes, Platyhelminths, etc

 gut cavity, coelomic fluid
 Arthropods, annelids, chordates, etc
 distinct circulatory system
 pumps and channel system
 How are materials transported in
multicellular organisms?

Gastrovascular cavity in
simple invertebrates
 No system is required
 Single opening:
exchange of materials
with the environment
 Central cavity for
digestion and
distribution of
substances throughout
the body
 Body walls are two cell
layers thick 
materials undergo
diffusion
 Cnidarians (e.g. Hydra)
and flatworms (e.g.
planarians)
Phylum Porifera: Sponges

1. Non-moving (sessile) animals

2. No nerves or muscles (no tissue differentiation)
3. Mostly marine
4. Filter feeders: Collect food particles from water
5. Most sponges are hermaphrodites. Hermaphrodites
function as both male and female in sexual reproduction by
producing eggs and sperm.

**All other animals are in the clade Eumetazoa (true

tissues).
 Several types of internal transport
have evolved in animals

 In cnidarians and flatworms,

the gastrovascular cavity
functions in both
 digestion

 internal transport Mouth

Circular
canal
 In Cnidarians, respiration occurs via diffusion directly
through their tissues
 A gastrovascular cavity is used for digestion and
transport
Invertebrate Circulatory Systems
The Circulatory System
 Closed circulatory system – The circulating fluid, or
blood, is enclosed within blood vessels that transport
it away from – and back to – the heart
 Allvertebrates, cephalopod molluscs, and annelids
 Consists of
heart, blood
vessels and
blood
 How are materials transported in multicellular
organisms?

Water vascular system in

echinoderms
 multi-purpose:
locomotion, food and
waste transport,
respiration
 closed system of canals
connecting tube feet
 madreporite  ring
canal  radial and
lateral canal  tube
feet  ampullae
 How are materials transported in
multicellular organisms?
Closed circulatory system or
cardiovascular system
 cephalopods, annelids,
vertebrates
 presence of blood vessels
 advantages
1. rapid flow
2. may direct blood to specific
tissues
3. blood cells and large
molecules remain within
vessels
4. can support higher levels of
metabolic activity
Invertebrate Circulation:
Annelids

 Closed circulatory system

 Dense capillary network at integument
(respiration)
 Peristaltic dorsal blood vessel drives blood
flow
Invertebrate
Section 29-2
Circulatory Systems

Hearts Heartlike structure

Small vessels in tissues

Heart
Blood
vessels

Sinuses
and organs

Blood
Heartlike vessels
structures
Insect: Annelid:
Open Circulatory System Closed Circulatory System

Why are closed circulatory systems more efficient than open?

 Closed system
 Vertebrates, annelid
worms, and a few
mollusks have a closed
circulatory system.
 Blood is moved
through blood vessels
by the heart’s action. It
does not come in direct
contact with body
organs.
Invertebrate Circulation:
Crustaceans

 Some small or sessile spp.

lack heart or blood vessels
 Larger spp possess open
system similar to insects
 Extensive circulation in gills
 heart receives oxygenated
hemolymph from the gills then
pumps it to the rest of the body
Invertebrate Circulation:
Cephalopods
 Closed circulatory system
 pair of branchial hearts
(drive blood to gills)
 single chambered systemic
heart (ventricle)
 similar to system in higher
vertebrates
 separate pulmonary and
systemic circuits
Invertebrate Circulation:
Bivalves and Gastropods
 Open circulatory system
 (hemolymph) circulated in an open space (hemocoel)
divided into lacunae
 Two- or three-chambered heart
 Hydraulic force used to control movement of the
foot in bivalves
Bivalvia
Shells divided into
two parts.
Gills are used for
feeding and gas
exchange.
Example:
Clams, oysters
 Invertebrate Circulation:
Insects
 Open circulatory system – No distinction between
blood and the interstitial fluid; hemolymph
 Minimal gas transport
 Large dorsal vessel w/peristaltic heart in
posterior segment
 hemolymph runs anteriorly to head, then ends
in hemocoel
 flow directed through hemocoel by longitudinal
membranes
 flows back to posterior dorsal vessel

 Auxillary pumps supply wings limbs, and

antennae
 A tubular muscle, or heart, pumps hemolymph through a network of channels
and body cavities, before draining back to the central cavity
 Hemolymph directly bathes the internal

organs
Invertebrate Circulatory Systems
 Open circulatory system – No distinction between
blood and the interstitial fluid; hemolymph
 Most Molluscs and Arthropods
 A tubular muscle, or heart, pumps hemolymph through a
network of channels and body cavities, before draining back
to the central cavity
 Hemolymph directly

bathes the internal

organs
 Most animals have a separate circulatory system,
either open or closed

• Open systems
– A heart pumps blood through open-ended
vessels into spaces between cells

Tubular heart
Pores

Figure 23.2B
 Open system
 Arthropods and most
mollusks have an open
circulatory system.
 Hemolymph is
contained in a body
cavity, the hemocoel.
A series of hearts
circulates the fluid.
How are materials transported
in multicellular organisms?

Open circulatory system

 Phylum Arthropoda,
Phylum Mollusca (with one
exception)
 hemolymph (colorless)

 heart(s)  sinuses  ostia

 heart(s)
 diffusion from sinuses to
organs
 insects: well-developed
respiratory systems, O2
not transported through
the blood
Why does an open circulatory system limit body size?

1. Hearts are too small 25% 25% 25% 25%

for growth.
2. Too little blood to
support a larger
animal.
3. Less efficient in
moving oxygen to
body tissues.
4. Hemocoel must be
shed for growth. 1 2 3 4
Invertebrate Circulation:
Arachnids

 Similar to insect design

 Hemolymph contains higher [hemocyanin]
 O2 transport
 More extensive arterial systems in arachnids with
books lungs
 Specific arteries supply hydraulic pressure to legs
for locomotion
 legs of spiders lack extensor muscles
 General plan of the vertebrate
cardiovascular system
 Heart
 Atrium

 Ventricle

 Blood vessels
 Arteries

 Arterioles

 Capillariesand
capillary beds
 Venules

 Veins

 Blood
The Circulatory Systems of Vertebrates
Section 33-3

Double-Loop Circulatory System

Single-Loop
Circulatory System

FISHES CROCODILIANS, BIRDS,

MOST REPTILES AND MAMMALS
Trace the flow of blood through a single loop system? Pg. 860

Trace the flow of blood through a double loop system? Pg. 860
 W
O
R
K
 Why did homeothermy (“warm-bloodedness) only
T
develop in organisms with a closed circulatory O
system? G
E
T
H
E
R
Vertebrate Circulation:
General Patterns

 Single passage through

heart during circuit
(e.g., fish)
 Single circuit
 Double passage through
heart during circuit
(e.g., mammals)
 Separate pulmonary and
systemic circuits
 Different adaptations of the cardiovascular systems in
vertebrates: fishes

 Single-circulation
 Fish heart
 2 chambered hearts
 atrium and ventricle
 vessel

 African lungfish heart

 3-chambered
 2 atria
 left side of atrium receives
oxygenated blood (to tissues)
 right side receives
deoxygenated blood (to lung
or gills)
 spiral fold
 partially divided ventricle
 Closed systems

– A heart pumps blood through arteries and capillary

beds
– The blood returns to the heart via veins
Capillary beds
Arteriole

Artery
(O2-rich blood)

Venule

Vein

Atrium
Heart
Artery Ventricle
Gill
(O2-poor blood) Figure 23.2C
capillaries
Vertebrate Circulatory Systems
 Fish evolved a 2-chambered heart to increase
efficiency of gas exchange in gills

First to contract 2.

1. 3. 4.
 Vertebrate cardiovascular systems
reflect evolution
Gill capillaries

 A fish has a single circuit

of blood flow Heart:

Ventricle (V)

Atrium (A)

Systemic capillaries
Vertebrate Circulation:
Cyclostomes

 Partially open system

 large blood sinuses

 Multiple “hearts”
 branchial (regular) heart
 two chambered
 cardinal heart
 portal heart

 caudal hearts

 gills (drive arterial blood)

Vertebrate Circulation:
Teleosts and Elasmobranchs
 Two-chambered heart
 atrium + ventricle
 Atrial contraction (systole) pushes
blood into ventricle
 valves prevent flow into sinus venosus
 Ventricular systole forces blood into
bulbus arteriosus
 Backflow upon relaxation (diastole)
prevented by valves
 elastic recoil of bulbus arteriosus drives
blood through blood vessels
 Vertebrate Circulation:
Dipnoi (Lungfish)

 Three-chambered heart
 Two-chambered atrium
 Partially divided ventricle & bulbus
cordis (conus arteriosis)
 Separates oxygenated (left) and
deoxygenated (right) blood
 Can shunt blood to lungs or gill
lamellae
 Vertebrate Circulation:
Amphibians
 Three chambered heart
 Two chambered atrium
 Undivided ventricle
 Spiral valve - separates blood flow
in conus arteriosus
 Right side (pulmonary)
 Receives blood from tissues and skin
 Pumps to skin and lungs

 Left side (systemic)

 Receives blood from lungs
 Pumps to tissues
 Different adaptations of the cardiovascular
systems in vertebrates: amphibians
 Pulmocutaneous and
systemic circulation are
partly separated
 Amphibian heart
 1 ventricle pumps blood
to lungs, skin, and tissues
 2 atria:
 rt. atrium receives
deoxygenated blood
 lt. atrium receives
oxygenated blood
 advantage: oxygen-rich
blood reaches the
body’s organs faster
 some mixing of O2-rich
and poor blood occurs
Vertebrate Circulation:
Non-Archosaur Reptiles
 Three chambered heart
 Two chambered atrium
 partly divided ventricle

 Ventricle contains three sub-chambers

 divided upon contraction
 “five-chambered” heart

 allows heart to redirect blood flow btw pulmonary

and systemic circuits
 “cardiac shunting”
 Different adaptations of the cardiovascular
systems in vertebrates: reptiles

 Reptilian heart
 3-chambers (except for
crocodilians with 4)
2 atria
 1 ventricle (2 ventricles in
crocodiles and alligators)
 partially divided,
decreases mixing

 may stop sending blood

to lungs when not
breathing
 Vertebrate Circulation:
Crocodilians
 Four-chambered heart
 Left aortic arch and pulmonary artery arise from right
ventricle
 L and R arches connected by foramen of Panizza

 Allows cardiac shunting

 blood directed to lungs during air breathing
 blood directed to tissues during diving
 Vertebrate Circulation:
Mammals and Birds
 Four-chambered heart
 Complete separation into right and left halves
 Blood pressure can differ between pulmonary and
systemic circuits
 systemic BP = 95 mmHg
 pulmonary BP = 14 mmHg
Vertebrate Circulation:
Mammals and Birds
Different adaptations of the cardiovascular
systems in vertebrates: birds and mammals
 4 chambered heart:
 2 atria
 2 ventricles
 full separation of pulmonary and
systemic circuits
 Advantages
1. no mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood
2. gas exchange is maximized
3. separation allows for pulmonary and
systemic circuits to operate at different
pressures
 Importance
1. Endothermic  high nutrient and O2
demands in tissues
2. Numerous vessels  great deal of
resistance, so requires high pressure
Vertebrate Circulation:
Mammals and Birds
 Atria
 Thin walled, support ventricular filling
 Ventricles
 Primary pumps for driving blood through
circulation
 One-way valves
 Atrioventricular valves
 Arterial (semilunar) valves
 ensure unidirectional flow
 veins → atria → ventricles → arteries
Mammalian/Avian
Cardiac Cycle
 Systole (contraction)
 Muscular walls of the ventricles
contract
 Elevation of blood pressure in the
ventricles
 Closure of atrioventricular valves

 Blood pushes through arterial

valves
 Blood flows into arteries
Mammalian/Avian
Cardiac Cycle

 Diastole (relaxation)
 Muscular walls of the ventricles
relax
 Blood pressure in the ventricles
falls below arterial pressure
 Closure of arterial valves
 Pressure falls below atrial
pressure
 Blood pushes through
atrioventricular valves
 Ventricular volume increases
Cardiac Output
 amount of blood pumped by the heart per min.
Qh = h * Vh
 h = heart rate
 frequency of contraction
 Vh = stroke volume
 volume of blood pumped by heart per contraction
Cardiac Output

 Adjusted to meet metabolic demands of an

organism
 activity,  cardiac output
 Modify cardiac output by changing either
heart rate or stroke volume
Heart Excitation:
Myogenic (Vertebrates)

 Heart excitation and contraction

can occur in absence of external
stimulation
 Presence of internal
“pacemakers” (modified muscle
cells) form conduction system
 Sinoatrial node
 Atrioventricular node
 Atrioventricular bundle
 Purkinje fibers
Heart Excitation:
Neurogenic (Arthropods)

 Signals received from neurons

directly responsible for muscle
contraction
 Posterior cells act as
pacemakers
 Anterior cells stimulate muscle
contraction
Regulation of Cardiac Output
(Mammals)

 Heart rate (modify pacemaker activity):

 The autonomic nervous system:
 Parasympathetic nervous system (vagus nerve)
 acetylcholine slows HR
 Sympathetic nervous system (accelerans nerve)
 norepinephrine increases HR

 Hormones
 Epinephrine (released from adrenal glands)
 increased HR
Regulation of Cardiac Output
(Mammals)

 Stroke volume (modify force of contraction):

 neural/hormonal
 epinephrine and norepinephrine
 increases force of muscle contraction
 autoregulation
 Frank-Starling Law
 increased venous return increases stretch on the heart
 increased stretch leads to stronger contractions
Oxygen Delivery During Exercise
  activity, O2 requirements and CO2 production
 Three mechanisms of obtaining more O2
 O2 extraction from the blood
 only 25% of O2 removed from blood at rest
 increase to 80-90% during exercise

 Heart Rate
  Stroke Volume
Animal Size and Cardiac Output

 Smaller animals have relatively higher

metabolic rates (b ~ 0.75)
 Smaller animals have relatively higher cardiac
outputs (b ~ 0.75)
 Higher cardiac output due to higher heart rates,
not larger stroke volumes
 Blood Vessels

 Arteries - large, elastic tubes, multiple layers of

muscles
 Arterioles - smaller diameter, less elastic, fewer
muscle layers
 Capillaries - thin diameter, thin walls, low diffusion
resistance
 Venules - larger diameter, thin walled, no muscle
 Veins - large diameter, elastic walls, little muscle, may
possess valves
Blood Vessels

 Structural Patterns
  diameter,  number,  cross-sectional area

 Functional Patterns
 Blood volume: largest in veins, smallest in capillaries
 Blood pressure:  with  distance passed
 Blood flow velocity:  with  diameter and  cross-
sectional area
Blood Flow

 Blood flows from an area of high total fluid

energy to low total fluid energy
 Bernoulli’s Theorem
E = pv + mgh + 1/2mu2
 E = total fluid energy
 pv = potential energy of pressure generated by the heart
 mgh = gravitational potential energy
 1/2mu2 = kinetic energy
Overview of Blood Flow

 Reasonable assumptions that will help simplify

things…
 Kinetic Energy varies little from one location to another
within the system being analyzed
 Flow is horizontal (gravitational potential energy is
constant)
Blood Flow:
Poiseuille’s Law

 For the laminar flow of a fluid

through a straight, rigid tube:
Q = (pr4) / (8L)
 Q = blood flow (volume per unit time)
 p = difference in pressure between
both ends
 r = radius of the tube
 L = length of the tube
 = viscosity
Blood Flow:
Poiseuille’s Law
 Q  p
 as pressure gradient increases, flow increases
 Q  r4
 increased radius, large increase in flow
 decreased radius, large decrease in flow

 Q  1/L
 flow decreases with increased tube length
 Q  1/ 
 increased viscosity decreases flow
 Gravity Effects
on Blood Pressure

 As height ’s, gravitational

potential energy ’s, pressure ’s
 Venous return
 blood pressure in lower body greater
than upper body due to gravity
 pressure in veins exceeds arterial pressure
 blood pools in leg veins
 returned by venous pressure pumps
Gravity Effects
on Blood Pressure
 Head perfusion
 arterialblood pressure must be high
enough for blood to reach head
 giraffes - long vertical neck
 higharterial BP
 venous values prevent backflow when head
brought to ground level
Capillaries
 Enormous number of capillaries
 overall large cross-sectional area
 Extremely thin diameter
 slow blood flow
 high SA/V ratio

 Thin walls (simple squamous endothelium)

 low diffusion distance
Ultrafiltration

 Small molecules can diffuse into and out of

capillaries
 Additional amounts of fluid driven out by hydraulic
pressure inside the capillaries = ultrafiltration.
 Small particles driven out with water
 large molecules (e.g. plasma proteins) remain in blood
Ultrafiltration
 Loss of water with retention of proteins increases the
colloid osmotic pressure of the blood
 generates tendency for water to flow back into the
blood as pressure in the capillaries decreases
Lymphatic System

 Generally water loss by ultrafiltration exceeds

water uptake by colloid osmotic movement of
water
 lostfluid enters lymphatic system
 returned to the blood
 The cardiovascular system of land vertebrates has two
circuits
Lung capillaries

• The pulmonary circuit

PULMONARY
– conveys blood between CIRCUIT

the heart and gas-

exchange tissues A A

V V

• The systemic circuit Right Left

SYSTEMIC
CIRCUIT

– carries blood between

the heart and the rest
of the body Systemic capillaries Figure 23.3B
© SSER Ltd.
 Mammalian Heart Structure
The heart is the major The left side of the
organ of the Superior heart receives oxygenated
circulatory system VENA blood from the lungs via the
CAVA AORTA PULMONARY VEINS
It is a fist-sized muscular
pump consisting of The left side of the
four chambers heart pumps oxygenated
blood out into
The human heart the body’s arteries via
recirculates the entire the AORTA
blood volume (5 dm3)
every minute when Deoxygenated blood
the body is at rest PULMONARY
returns to the right side
ARTERY of the heart via the
The ability of the VENA CAVA
heart to perform such
work is due to the Deoxygenated blood
presence of specialised CORONARY is pumped to the
cardiac muscle in ARTERIES lungs via the
its walls PULMONARY
ARTERY
The job of the heart is to Heart muscle receives
pump blood around two its own supply of blood
separate circuits Inferior from the CORONARY
VENA ARTERIES
CAVA
 Mammalian Heart Structure

Aorta

Pulmonary
Vena cavae artery
Pulmonary
Semilunar valves veins
Left atrium
Right atrium
Bicuspid
Tricuspid valve valve

Right ventricle Left ventricle

Septum
Cardiac
(dividing wall) muscle
 Mammalian Heart Structure
The mammalian heart is
a muscular pump that consists
of four chambers
Two upper chambers, called the
atria, are thin walled cavities that
receive blood from veins
Two lower chambers, called the
ventricles, are thick walled cavities
hat receive blood from the atria and
pump blood away from the heart
The cavity of the heart is
divided completely by a Right Left
partition called the atrium atrium
SEPTUM
The muscular walls of the
heart are referred to as the
myometrium and consist of
specialised cardiac muscle Right Left
cells ventricle ventricle
The thicker walled structure of the left
ventricle is a consequence of the distance
over which it is required to pump blood Septum
The human heart and cardiovascular
system typify those of mammals
 The mammalian heart has two thin-walled atria that
pump blood into the ventricles
 The thick-walled ventricles pump blood to all other body
organs
Pulmonary Aorta
artery

Pulmonary
Superior
artery
vena cava
LEFT
ATRIUM
RIGHT
ATRIUM

Pulmonary
veins Pulmonary
veins

Semilunar
Semilunar
valve valve

Atrioventricular
valve Atrioventricular
valve

Inferior
vena cava

RIGHT LEFT
VENTRICLE VENTRICLE
Figure 23.4A
 Superior 7
Capillaries of
vena cava
Head and arms

Pulmonary
artery Pulmonary
artery
Capillaries Capillaries
of right lung 9 Aorta of left lung

3 2 3

4
11
Pulmonary Pulmonary
vein vein
5
1 LEFT ATRIUM
RIGHT ATRIUM
10 LEFT VENTRICLE
RIGHT VENTRICLE

Inferior Aorta
vena cava

Capillaries of
abdominal organs
and legs
8
Figure 23.4B
Blood Flow Through Heart
 Histology of heart

Striations
Intercalated
discs
Gap
junctions
Conducting System of Heart

20-103
 The heart contracts and relaxes
rhythmically
1 Heart is 2 Atria
relaxed.
 Diastole AV valves
are open.
contract.

 Blood flows from the

veins into the heart
chambers
0.1 sec SYSTOLE

• Systole 3 Ventricles
0.3 sec contract.
– The atria briefly
0.4 sec
Semilunar
valves
contract and fill the are open.

ventricles with blood DIASTOLE

– Then the ventricles

contract and propel Figure 23.6
blood out
 Human Cardiovascular System

Blood pressure is the fluid pressure exerted by heart contractions. It is

usually measured in the brachial artery and is written as systolic pressure
over diastolic pressure (normal is about 120/80). In vessels smaller than
arteries, blood pressure drops significantly.
106 C.B.C. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED © 5/17/98
 Heart valves prevent backflow

• Cardiac output
– The amount of blood pumped into the aorta by
the left ventricle per minute
 The pacemaker sets the tempo
of the heartbeat
 The SA node (pacemaker) generates electrical signals
that trigger the contraction of the atria
 The AV node then relays these signals to the ventricles

Specialized
Pacemaker AV node
muscle fibers
(SA node)

Right
atrium

Right
ventricle
1 2 3 4

ECG Figure 23.7

 An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a recording of
electrical changes in the skin resulting from the
electrical signals in the heart

– Control centers in the brain adjust heart rate

to body needs
The Heart Beat
 The heart stimulates its self to beat
 The rate and strength is adjusted by the central
nervous system
 Sinoatrial (SA) node – “pacemaker” in the right
atrium generates an electrical signal to contract the
atria
 This signal initiates the atrioventircular (AV) node
which stimulates the ventricles
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)– measures the electrical
signal produced by the heart

 The largest spike in the ventricular contraction signal

(from AV node) the small spike before that is the atrial
contraction signal (from SA node)
Circulatory System
Pathway
 Coronary Blood Pathway

Coronary arteries branch

From the aorta

They become progressively

smaller until they completely
cover the heart

Cardiac veins flow

Back to the right atria

Cardiac veins
return

Often a blocked coronary artery will require a bypass surgery

Connection: What is a heart attack?

 A heart attack is damage that occurs when a

coronary feeding the heart is blocked
Aorta

Right
coronary
artery Left
coronary
artery

Blockage

Dead muscle tissue

Figure 23.8A
 Electrical Properties

 Resting membrane potential (RMP) present

 Action potentials
 Rapid depolarization followed by rapid, partial
early repolarization. Prolonged period of slow
repolarization which is plateau phase and a rapid
final repolarization phase
 Voltage-gated channels

20-115
Pace maker
Electrophysiology of the heart
The different waveforms for each of the specialized cells
The
genesis of
the
electro-
cardiogram

EE-515
Bioelectricity &
Biomagnetism
2002 Fall -
Murat Eyüboğlu
SA Node Action Potential

20-119
Pace maker potential
Action Potentials in
Skeletal and Cardiac Muscle

20-123
Action Potentials of Cardiac Tissue
Channels responsible for pacemaker
potential
 Action Potential of SA Node

 Pacemaker potential has slow depolarization

 Progressive reduction in K+ permeability
 K+ channels close
 Depolarization due to influx of Ca++
 Depolarization due to influx of Na+
 Repolarization due to efflux of K+
 Repolarization of previous potential triggers following
AP
 Fig. 12-13, p. 399
CARDIAC OUTPUT
 The volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per
minute.
 Volume that flows through pulmonary or systemic
circulation per minute
 CO = HR x SV
 5.0L = 72beats/min x 0.07L/beat
Control of Heart Rate
 SA node’s autonomous discharge is 100 beats/min.
 Parasympathetic stimulation slows discharge to 72
beats/min.
 Sympathetic stimulation increases discharge.
Effect of Cholinergic Stimulation
 ACh binds to muscarinic receptor
 h K+ conductance of SA node
 Leads to hyperpolarization of potential

 Slows opening of Ca++ channels of next potential

 iFiring rate of SA node

 Vagus nerve (vagal stimulation

Sympathetic Stimulation to SA
Node
 NE increases spontaneous firing rate
 Bindsto β receptors
 Opens Ca++ channels

 h rate of depolarization

 h strength of contraction of muscle due to

h Ca++ in fibers
 Sympathetic stimulation of the AV node AV node to
reduce delays by increasing conduction velocity ,
possibly by increasing Ca2 + influx is slow .
Similarly , sympathetic stimulation accelerates the
spread of action potential conduction along specific
pathways .
In atrial and ventricular contractile cells , which both
have a lot of sympathetic nerve
 Cardiac Acceleration- the Sympathetic Pathway

 In response to stress or exercise, the sympathetic

nerves release the hormone norepinephrine.
Norepinephrine increases the permeability of
myocardial cells, including pacemaker cells and
contractile tissue, to sodium and calcium. The
increase in sodium permeability lowers the
threshold potential of SA node cells, causing them
to fire more rapidly.
 Increased sodium permeability in the AV node
makes it easier for each fiber to excite the next,
which decreases the conduction time from the
atria to the ventricles.
 . The effect of norepinephrine to increase the
contractile strength of cardiac muscle is thought
to be due to increased membrane permeability
to calcium. Calcium ions play an important role in
the contraction of myofibrils
 The effect of sympathetic stimulation is to
increase the overall activity of the heart:
 The SA node discharge rate is increased
 The excitability of all portions of the heart is
increased, reducing conduction time
 The contractile force of atrial and ventricular
muscle is increased
Control of Stroke Volume
 The volume of blood ejected by each ventricle during
each contraction.
 Stroke volume is changed by changing force of
contraction by:
 Changes in end-diastolic volume (Frank Starling Mechanism)
 Changes in magnitude of sympathetic stimulation
(contractility)
 Afterload
(via SA Node)
 Control of the Heart Rate

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS

SYSTEM SYSTEM

Sympathetic nerves release Parasympathetic nerves release

the neurotransmitter noradrenaline the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
at their terminals at their terminals

The heart is supplied with both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves

and the chemicals that they secrete modify the heart rate
 Control of the Heart Rate
Two autonomic nerves link the
cardiovascular centre in the brain
with the SA node of the heart
A sympathetic nerve, when This parasympathetic
stimulated, releases noradrenaline nerve is a branch of
at its terminus with the SA node the vagus nerve
and this chemical speeds the
heart rate A parasympathetic nerve, when
The heart rate is therefore stimulated, releases acetylcholin
determined by the balance at its terminus with the SA node
between sympathetic and and this chemical slows the
parasympathetic nerve heart rate
activity Numerous sympathetic
Sympathetic activity nerves also innervate
dominates during (link to) the walls of the
periods of exercise, stress two ventricles where they
and excitement increase the force of
Parasympathetic activity contraction of these
dominates during chambers
periods of rest and sleep

Increased sympathetic activity also stimulates the release of the hormone adrenaline fro
the adrenal glands; adrenaline increases both the heart rate and its force of contraction
 Cardiovascular Disease
Cardiovascular Disease includes
diseases that affect the heart. Two
common conditions related to
cardiovascular disease include:
Atherosclerosis (plaque build-up around
the arteries).
Arteriosclerosis (hardening of the
arteries).
Both of these conditions can lead to a
stroke or heart attack. A heart attack
occurs when the blood supply into or
within the heart is cut off or reduced.
Cardiovascular Risk Factors

Your risk for cardiovascular disease is

affected by non-modifiable and
modifiable risk factors.

•Non-modifiable risk factors (risk

factors you cannot change) including
your age, gender, and heredity.
As you get older, your risk for
heart disease increases.

Additionally, men have higher risk than

women until women reach menopause
(when their menstrual period stops).
•Modifiable risk factors: are the things you can change.
This includes things like smoking, stress, diet and physical
inactivity. Individuals who smoke are at higher risk of
heart disease than non-smokers. People who are
chronically stressed are also at higher risk of heart disease
than those who are less stressed. Lastly, individuals who
are not physically active and/or obese, are at higher risk of
heart disease than those who are active and have a healthy
body fat percentage.
Cholesterol and Blood Pressure
are two risk factors that are
commonly checked at the doctors’
office. Sometimes, students don't
have these tests measured
frequently enough.

For optimal health, you should

have your cholesterol and blood
pressure taken on a regular basis.

Early detection of Cardiovascular

Disease ensures that proper steps
can be taken to help reduce
further risks associated with
CVD.
Cholesterol is a waxy fat substance in the blood of our
bodies. Our bodies need cholesterol to function. Your
liver makes all the cholesterol it needs to survive. Other
sources of cholesterol come from food. Cholesterol is
found in animal products such as meat, eggs and whole
milk dairy products. If the level of cholesterol gets to
high, it can stick to artery walls and cause serious health
problems. 52% of American adults have high cholesterol.

Optimal values for total cholesterol are below 200

mg/dl.
If your values are above 240 mg/dl, you have twice the
risk of a heart attack as someone whose total
cholesterol is below 200 mg/dl.
Cholesterol moves through your
bloodstream via lipoproteins . They are
either low-density (LDL’s) or high-density
(HDL’s).

Low-density lipoproteins (LDL’s) are

often called the "bad cholesterol" because
they contribute to plaque build up in the
blood vessels (atherosclerosis).

To lower total cholesterol and LDL’s, it is

recommended to lower your intake of
saturated fats and cholesterol and increase
your level of physical activity.