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Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2nd Ed.

Nivaldo Tro

Chapter 10
Chemical
Bonding II

Roy Kennedy
Massachusetts Bay Community College
Wellesley Hills, MA
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Taste
• The taste of a food depends on the interaction
between the food molecules and taste cells on
your tongue
• The main factors that affect this interaction are
the shape of the molecule and charge
distribution within the molecule
• The food molecule must fit snugly into the
active site of specialized proteins on the
surface of taste cells
• When this happens, changes in the protein
structure cause a nerve signal to transmit
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Sugar & Artificial Sweeteners
• Sugar molecules fit into the active site of taste cell
receptors called Tlr3 receptor proteins
• When the sugar molecule (the key) enters the
active site (the lock), the different subunits of the
T1r3 protein split apart
• This split causes ion channels in the cell
membrane to open, resulting in nerve signal
transmission
• Artificial sweeteners also fit into the Tlr3 receptor,
sometimes binding to it even stronger than sugar
 making them “sweeter” than sugar
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 3 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Structure Determines Properties!
• Properties of molecular substances depend on
the structure of the molecule
• The structure includes many factors, such as:
the skeletal arrangement of the atoms
the kind of bonding between the atoms
ionic, polar covalent, or covalent
the shape of the molecule
• Bonding theory should allow you to predict the
shapes of molecules

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Molecular Geometry
• Molecules are 3-dimensional objects
• We often describe the shape of a molecule
with terms that relate to geometric figures
• These geometric figures have characteristic
“corners” that indicate the positions of the
surrounding atoms around a central atom in
the center of the geometric figure
• The geometric figures also have
characteristic angles that we call bond
angles

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Lewis Theory Predicts
Electron Groups
• Lewis theory predicts there are regions of
electrons in an atom
• Some regions result from placing shared pairs
of valence electrons between bonding nuclei
• Other regions result from placing unshared
valence electrons on a single nuclei

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Using Lewis Theory to Predict
Molecular Shapes
• Lewis theory says that these regions of
electron groups should repel each other
 because they are regions of negative charge
• This idea can then be extended to predict the
shapes of molecules
 the position of atoms surrounding a central atom will be
determined by where the bonding electron groups are
 the positions of the electron groups will be determined
by trying to minimize repulsions between them

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 7 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
VSEPR Theory
• Electron groups around the central atom will
be most stable when they are as far apart as
possible – we call this valence shell electron
pair repulsion theory
because electrons are negatively charged, they
should be most stable when they are separated as
much as possible
• The resulting geometric arrangement will allow
us to predict the shapes and bond angles in
the molecule
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Electron Groups
• The Lewis structure predicts the number of valence
electron pairs around the central atom(s)
• Each lone pair of electrons constitutes one electron
group on a central atom
• Each bond constitutes one electron group on a
central atom
 regardless of whether it is single, double, or triple

there are three electron groups on N


•• •• ••
•O N O ••
three lone pair
• one single bond
•• one double bond

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Electron Group Geometry
• There are five basic arrangements of electron
groups around a central atom
 based on a maximum of six bonding electron groups
 though there may be more than six on very large atoms, it is
very rare
• Each of these five basic arrangements results in
five different basic electron geometries
 in order for the molecular shape and bond angles to be
a “perfect” geometric figure, all the electron groups
must be bonds and all the bonds must be equivalent
• For molecules that exhibit resonance, it doesn’t
matter which resonance form you use – the
electron geometry will be the same
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Linear Electron Geometry
• When there are two electron groups around the
central atom, they will occupy positions on
opposite sides of the central atom
• This results in the electron groups taking a linear
geometry
• The bond angle is 180°

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Linear Geometry

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Trigonal Planar Electron Geometry
• When there are three electron groups around
the central atom, they will occupy positions in
the shape of a triangle around the central atom
• This results in the electron groups taking a
trigonal planar geometry
• The bond angle is 120°

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Trigonal Geometry

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Tetrahedral Electron Geometry
• When there are four electron groups around the
central atom, they will occupy positions in the
shape of a tetrahedron around the central atom
• This results in the electron groups taking a
tetrahedral geometry
• The bond angle is 109.5°

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Tetrahedral Geometry

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Trigonal Bipyramidal Electron Geometry
• When there are five electron groups around the central
atom, they will occupy positions in the shape of two
tetrahedra that are base-to-base with the central atom in the
center of the shared bases
• This results in the electron groups taking a trigonal
bipyramidal geometry
• The positions above and below the central atom are called
the axial positions
• The positions in the same base plane as the central atom
are called the equatorial positions
• The bond angle between equatorial positions is 120°
• The bond angle between axial and equatorial positions is 90°

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Trigonal Bipyramid

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Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry

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Octahedral Electron Geometry
• When there are six electron groups around the central
atom, they will occupy positions in the shape of two
square-base pyramids that are base-to-base with the
central atom in the center of the shared bases
• This results in the electron groups taking an octahedral
geometry
 it is called octahedral because the geometric figure has
eight sides
• All positions are equivalent
• The bond angle is 90°

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Octahedral Geometry

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Octahedral Geometry

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Molecular Geometry
• The actual geometry of the molecule may be
different from the electron geometry
• When the electron groups are attached to
atoms of different size, or when the bonding to
one atom is different than the bonding to
another, this will affect the molecular geometry
around the central atom
• Lone pairs also affect the molecular geometry
they occupy space on the central atom, but are not
“seen” as points on the molecular geometry

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 26 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Not Quite Perfect Geometry

Because the bonds and


atom sizes are not
identical in formaldehyde,
the observed angles are
slightly different from ideal

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 27 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Effect of Lone Pairs
• Lone pair groups “occupy more space” on the
central atom
because their electron density is exclusively on the
central atom rather than shared like bonding electron
groups
• Relative sizes of repulsive force interactions is
Lone Pair – Lone Pair > Lone Pair – Bonding Pair > Bonding Pair – Bonding Pair

• This affects the bond angles, making the bonding


pair – bonding pair angles smaller than expected

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 28 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Effect of Lone Pairs

bonding electrons
The nonbonding are are
electrons shared by twoon
localized
atoms,
the so some
central atom,ofsothe negative
area charge
of negative is
charge
removed
takes morefrom the central atom
space

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 29 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bond Angle Distortion
from Lone Pairs

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Bond Angle Distortion
from Lone Pairs

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Bent Molecular Geometry:
Derivative of Trigonal Planar Electron Geometry
• When there are three electron groups around
the central atom, and one of them is a lone pair,
the resulting shape of the molecule is called a
trigonal planar — bent shape
• The bond angle is less than 120°
 because the lone pair takes up more space

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 32 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pyramidal & Bent Molecular Geometries:
Derivatives of Tetrahedral Electron Geometry
• When there are four electron groups around the
central atom, and one is a lone pair, the result is
called a pyramidal shape
 because it is a triangular-base pyramid with the
central atom at the apex
• When there are four electron groups around the
central atom, and two are lone pairs, the result is
called a tetrahedral—bent shape
 it is planar
 it looks similar to the trigonal planar—bent shape,
except the angles are smaller
• For both shapes, the bond angle is less than
109.5°
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 33 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Methane

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Pyramidal Shape

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Pyramidal Shape

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Tetrahedral–Bent Shape

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Tetrahedral–Bent Shape

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Derivatives of the
Trigonal Bipyramidal Electron Geometry
• When there are five electron groups around the central atom,
and some are lone pairs, they will occupy the equatorial
positions because there is more room
• When there are five electron groups around the central atom,
and one is a lone pair, the result is called the seesaw shape
 aka distorted tetrahedron
• When there are five electron groups around the central atom,
and two are lone pairs, the result is called the T-shaped
• When there are five electron groups around the central atom,
and three are lone pairs, the result is a linear shape
• The bond angles between equatorial positions are less than
120°
• The bond angles between axial and equatorial positions are
less than 90°
 linear = 180° axial–to–axial
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 39 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Replacing Atoms with Lone Pairs
in the Trigonal Bipyramid System

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Seesaw Shape

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T–Shape

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T–Shape

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Linear Shape

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Derivatives of the
Octahedral Geometry
• When there are six electron groups around the
central atom, and some are lone pairs, each even
number lone pair will take a position opposite the
previous lone pair
• When there are six electron groups around the
central atom, and one is a lone pair, the result is
called a square pyramid shape
 the bond angles between axial and equatorial positions is
less than 90°
• When there are six electron groups around the
central atom, and two are lone pairs, the result is
called a square planar shape
 the bond angles between equatorial positions is 90°
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 45 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Square Pyramidal Shape

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Square Planar Shape

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Predicting the Shapes
Around Central Atoms
1. Draw the Lewis structure
2. Determine the number of electron groups
around the central atom
3. Classify each electron group as bonding or
lone pair, and count each type
 remember, multiple bonds count as one group
4. Use Table 10.1 to determine the shape and
bond angles

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 49 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.2: Predict the geometry and bond
angles of PCl3

1. Draw the Lewis


structure
a) 26 valence electrons
2. Determine the
Number of electron
groups around
central atom
a) four electron groups
around P

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 50 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.2: Predict the geometry and bond
angles of PCl3
3. Classify the electron groups
a) three bonding groups
b) one lone pair
4. Use Table 10.1 to determine the
shape and bond angles
a) four electron groups around P =
tetrahedral electron geometry
b) three bonding + one lone pair =
trigonal pyramidal molecular
geometry
c) trigonal pyramidal = bond angles
less than 109.5°
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 51 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Predict the molecular geometry
and bond angles in SiF5−

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 52 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Predict the molecular geometry
and bond angles in SiF5─

Si least electronegative
5 electron groups on Si
Si is central atom

Si = 4e─ 5 bonding groups


F5 = 5(7e─) = 35e─ 0 lone pairs
(─) = 1e─
total = 40e─
Shape = trigonal bipyramid
Bond angles
Feq–Si–Feq = 120°
Feq–Si–Fax = 90°

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 53 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Predict the molecular geometry
and bond angles in ClO2F

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 54 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Predict the molecular geometry
and bond angles in ClO2F

Cl least electronegative
4 electron groups on Cl
Cl is central atom

Cl = 7e─ 3 bonding groups


O2 = 2(6e─) = 12e─ 1 lone pair
F = 7e─
Total = 26e─ Shape = trigonal pyramidal
Bond angles
O–Cl–O < 109.5°
O–Cl–F < 109.5°

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 55 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Representing 3-Dimensional Shapes
on a 2-Dimensional Surface
• One of the problems with drawing molecules is
trying to show their dimensionality
• By convention, the central atom is put in the plane
of the paper
• Put as many other atoms as possible in the same
plane and indicate with a straight line
• For atoms in front of the plane, use a solid wedge
• For atoms behind the plane, use a hashed wedge

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 56 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 57 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
SF6
F
F F
S
F F
F

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Multiple Central Atoms
• Many molecules have larger structures with many
interior atoms
• We can think of them as having multiple central
atoms
• When this occurs, we describe the shape around
each central atom in sequence  

shape around left C is tetrahedral H O


| ||  
shape around center C is trigonal planar H  C  C  O  H
|  
shape around right O is tetrahedral-bent
H

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 59 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Describing the Geometry
of Methanol

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Describing the Geometry
of Glycine

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Practice – Predict the molecular geometries
in H3BO3

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 62 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Predict the molecular geometries
in H3BO3
oxyacid, so H attached to O
B least electronegative 34 electron
electron groups
groups on
on B
O

B Is Central Atom O has


B has
3 bonding groups
2
B = 3e─ 0 lone
2 ponepairs
pairs
O3 = 3(6e─) = 18e─
H3 = 3(1e─) = 3e─
Shape on B = trigonal planar
Total = 24e─
Shape on O = tetrahedral bent

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 63 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Polarity of Molecules
• For a molecule to be polar it must
1. have polar bonds
 electronegativity difference - theory
 bond dipole moments - measured
2. have an unsymmetrical shape
 vector addition
• Polarity affects the intermolecular forces of
attraction
 therefore boiling points and solubilities
 like dissolves like
• Nonbonding pairs affect molecular polarity,
strong pull in its direction
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 64 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Molecule Polarity

The H─Cl bond is polar. The bonding


electrons are pulled toward the Cl end of
the molecule. The net result is a polar
molecule.

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Vector Addition

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Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 67 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Molecule Polarity

The O─C bond is polar. The bonding


electrons are pulled equally toward both
O ends of the molecule. The net result is
a nonpolar molecule.

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 68 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Molecule Polarity

The H─O bond is polar. Both sets of


bonding electrons are pulled toward the
O end of the molecule. The net result
is a polar molecule.

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 69 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Predicting Polarity of Molecules

1. Draw the Lewis structure and determine the


molecular geometry
2. Determine whether the bonds in the molecule
are polar
a) if there are not polar bonds, the molecule is
nonpolar
3. Determine whether the polar bonds add
together to give a net dipole moment

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 70 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.5: Predict whether NH3 is a
polar molecule

1. Draw the Lewis


structure and
determine the
molecular geometry
a) eight valence electrons
b) three bonding + one lone
pair = trigonal pyramidal
molecular geometry

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 71 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.5: Predict whether NH3 is a
polar molecule

2. Determine if the bonds


are polar
a) electronegativity
difference
b) if the bonds are not polar, ENN = 3.0
ENH = 2.1
we can stop here and
3.0 − 2.1 = 0.9
declare the molecule will
therefore the
be nonpolar bonds are
polar covalent

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 72 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.5: Predict whether NH3 is a
polar molecule
3) Determine whether
the polar bonds add
together to give a
net dipole moment
a) vector addition
b) generally, asymmetric The H─N bond is polar. All
shapes result in the sets of bonding
uncompensated electrons are pulled toward
polarities and a net the N end of the molecule.
dipole moment The net result is a polar
molecule.

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 73 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Decide whether the following
molecules are polar
EN
O = 3.5
N = 3.0
Cl = 3.0
S = 2.5

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 74 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Decide whether the following
molecules Are polar

Trigonal
Bent Trigonal
Planar
2.5

1. polar bonds, N-O


2. asymmetrical shape 1. polar bonds, all S-O
2. symmetrical shape
polar
nonpolar

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 75 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Molecular Polarity
Affects
Solubility in Water
• Polar molecules are attracted
to other polar molecules
• Because water is a polar
molecule, other polar
molecules dissolve well in
water
and ionic compounds as well
• Some molecules have both
polar and nonpolar parts
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 76 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Problems with Lewis Theory
• Lewis theory generally predicts trends in
properties, but does not give good numerical
predictions
 e.g. bond strength and bond length
• Lewis theory gives good first approximations of
the bond angles in molecules, but usually cannot
be used to get the actual angle
• Lewis theory cannot write one correct structure for
many molecules where resonance is important
• Lewis theory often does not predict the correct
magnetic behavior of molecules
 e.g. O2 is paramagnetic, though the Lewis structure
predicts it is diamagnetic
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 77 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Valence Bond Theory
• Linus Pauling and others applied the principles
of quantum mechanics to molecules
• They reasoned that bonds between atoms
would occur when the orbitals on those atoms
interacted to make a bond
• The kind of interaction depends on whether the
orbitals align along the axis between the
nuclei, or outside the axis

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 78 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Orbital Interaction
• As two atoms approached, the half-filled
valence atomic orbitals on each atom would
interact to form molecular orbitals
molecular orbtials are regions of high probability of
finding the shared electrons in the molecule
• The molecular orbitals would be more stable
than the separate atomic orbitals because they
would contain paired electrons shared by both
atoms
the potential energy is lowered when the molecular
orbitals contain a total of two paired electrons
compared to separate one electron atomic orbitals
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 79 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Orbital Diagram for the
Formation of H2S
H
↑↓ H─S bond
1s ↑
+ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑↓ S
1s ↑ 3s 3p
↑↓ H─S bond
H

Predicts bond angle = 90°


Actual bond angle = 92°

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 80 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Valence Bond Theory – Hybridization
• One of the issues that arises is that the number
of partially filled or empty atomic orbitals did
not predict the number of bonds or orientation
of bonds
C = 2s22px12py12pz0 would predict two or three
bonds that are 90° apart, rather than four bonds
that are 109.5° apart
• To adjust for these inconsistencies, it was
postulated that the valence atomic orbitals
could hybridize before bonding took place
one hybridization of C is to mix all the 2s and 2p
orbitals to get four orbitals that point at the corners
of a tetrahedron
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Unhybridized C Orbitals Predict the
Wrong Bonding & Geometry

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Valence Bond Theory
Main Concepts
1. The valence electrons of the atoms in a
molecule reside in quantum-mechanical atomic
orbitals. The orbitals can be the standard s, p,
d, and f orbitals, or they may be hybrid
combinations of these.
2. A chemical bond results when these atomic
orbitals interact and there is a total of two
electrons in the new molecular orbital
a) the electrons must be spin paired
3. The shape of the molecule is determined by the
geometry of the interacting orbitals
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 83 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hybridization
• Some atoms hybridize their orbitals to
maximize bonding
• more bonds = more full orbitals = more stability
• Hybridizing is mixing different types of orbitals
in the valence shell to make a new set of
degenerate orbitals
sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d, sp3d2
• Same type of atom can have different types of
hybridization
C = sp, sp2, sp3

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Hybrid Orbitals
• The number of standard atomic orbitals
combined = the number of hybrid orbitals formed
combining a 2s with a 2p gives two 2sp hybrid
orbitals
H cannot hybridize!!
its valence shell only has one orbital
• The number and type of standard atomic orbitals
combined determines the shape of the hybrid
orbitals
• The particular kind of hybridization that occurs is
the one that yields the lowest overall energy for
the molecule
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 85 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Carbon Hybridizations
Unhybridized   
2s 2p

sp hybridized    
2sp 2p
sp2 hybridized    
2sp2 2p
sp3 hybridized    
2sp3
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 86 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
sp3 Hybridization
• Atom with four electron groups around it
tetrahedral geometry
109.5° angles between hybrid orbitals
• Atom uses hybrid orbitals for all bonds and
lone pairs

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 87 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 88 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Orbital Diagram of the
sp3 Hybridization of C

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sp3 Hybridized Atoms
Orbital Diagrams
• Place electrons into hybrid and unhybridized valence orbitals
as if all the orbitals have equal energy
• Lone pairs generally occupy hybrid orbitals

Unhybridized atom sp3 hybridized atom

   C    
2s 2p 2sp3

      

N 
2s 2p 2sp3
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 90 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Draw the orbital diagram for
the sp3 hybridization of each atom

Unhybridized atom sp3 hybridized atom

    Cl    
3s 3p 3sp3

    O    
2s 2p 2sp3

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 91 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bonding with Valence Bond Theory

• According to valence bond theory, bonding


takes place between atoms when their atomic
or hybrid orbitals interact
“overlap”
• To interact, the orbitals must either be aligned
along the axis between the atoms, or
• The orbitals must be parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the interatomic axis

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 92 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Methane Formation with sp3 C

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 93 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ammonia Formation with sp3 N

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 94 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Bonds
• A sigma (s) bond results when the interacting
atomic orbitals point along the axis connecting the
two bonding nuclei
 either standard atomic orbitals or hybrids
 s–to–s, p–to–p, hybrid–to–hybrid, s–to–hybrid, etc.
• A pi (p) bond results when the bonding atomic
orbitals are parallel to each other and perpendicular
to the axis connecting the two bonding nuclei
 between unhybridized parallel p orbitals
• The interaction between parallel orbitals is not as
strong as between orbitals that point at each other;
therefore s bonds are stronger than p bonds
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 95 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 96 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Orbital Diagrams of Bonding

• “Overlap” between a hybrid orbital on one atom


with a hybrid or nonhybridized orbital on
another atom results in a s bond
• “Overlap” between unhybridized p orbitals on
bonded atoms results in a p bond

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 97 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
CH3NH2 Orbital Diagram
H
s
s ·· s
H C s N H
s s
H H
s
sp3 C         sp3 N

s s s s s
    

1s H 1s H 1s H 1s H 1s H
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 98 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Formaldehyde, CH2O Orbital Diagram
p
pC   pO
s
sp2 C       sp2 O

s s
 

1s H 1s H

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 99 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
sp2
• Atom with three electron
groups around it
 trigonal planar system
 C = trigonal planar
 N = trigonal bent
 O = “linear”
 120° bond angles
 flat
• Atom uses hybrid orbitals for
s bonds and lone pairs, uses
nonhybridized p orbital for p
bond

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 100 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 101 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
sp2 Hybridized Atoms
Orbital Diagrams
Unhybridized atom sp2 hybridized atom
C
   3s    
1p
2s 2p 2sp2 2p
N
      

2s 
2s 2p 1p 2sp2 2p

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 102 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Draw the orbital diagram for
the sp2 hybridization of each atom. How many s
and p bonds would you expect each to form?
Unhybridized atom sp2 hybridized atom
B
  3s   
0p
2s 2p 2sp2 2p

O
       

1s
2s 2p 1p 2sp2 2p

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 103 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hybrid orbitals
overlap to form a
s bond.
Unhybridized p
orbitals overlap
to form a p bond.

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 104 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
CH2NH Orbital Diagram
p
pC   pN
s
sp2 C       sp2 N
H
s s C N s
  H H 

1s H 1s H 1s H

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 105 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bond Rotation
• Because the orbitals that form the s bond point
along the internuclear axis, rotation around
that bond does not require breaking the
interaction between the orbitals
• But the orbitals that form the p bond interact
above and below the internuclear axis, so
rotation around the axis requires the breaking
of the interaction between the orbitals

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 106 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 107 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 108 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
sp
• Atom with two electron groups
linear shape
180° bond angle
• Atom uses hybrid orbitals for s bonds or lone
pairs, uses nonhybridized p orbitals for p bonds

p
s
p

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 109 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 110 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 111 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
sp Hybridized Atoms
Orbital Diagrams

Unhybridized atom sp hybridized atom


C
   2s    
2p
2s 2p 2sp 2p
N
      

1s 
2s 2p 2p 2sp 2p

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 112 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
HCN Orbital Diagram

2p
pC     pN
s
sp C     sp N

1s H

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 113 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
3
sp d
• Atom with five electron groups
around it
trigonal bipyramid electron
geometry
Seesaw, T–Shape, Linear
120° & 90° bond angles
• Use empty d orbitals from
valence shell
• d orbitals can be used to
make p bonds

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 114 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 115 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
sp3d Hybridized Atoms
Orbital Diagrams
Unhybridized atom sp3d hybridized atom

    P     
3s 3p 3d 3sp3d

    S     
3s 3p 3d 3sp3d
(non-hybridizing d orbitals not shown)

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 116 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
SOF4 Orbital Diagram
p
dS   pO
s
sp3d S         sp2 O

s s s s

   

2p F 2p F 2p F 2p F

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 117 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
sp3d2
• Atom with six electron groups
around it
octahedral electron geometry
Square Pyramid, Square Planar
90° bond angles
• Use empty d orbitals from
valence shell to form hybrid
• d orbitals can be used to make
p bonds

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 118 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 119 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
sp3d2 Hybridized Atoms
Orbital Diagrams
Unhybridized atom sp3d2 hybridized atom

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ S ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
3s 3p 3d 3sp3d2

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ I ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
5s 5p 5d 5sp3d2
(non-hybridizing d orbitals not shown)

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 120 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 121 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Predicting Hybridization and
Bonding Scheme
1. Start by drawing the Lewis structure
2. Use VSEPR Theory to predict the electron group
geometry around each central atom
3. Use Table 10.3 to select the hybridization
scheme that matches the electron group
geometry
4. Sketch the atomic and hybrid orbitals on the
atoms in the molecule, showing overlap of the
appropriate orbitals
5. Label the bonds as s or p
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 122 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.7: Predict the hybridization
and bonding scheme for CH3CHO
Draw the Lewis structure

Predict the electron group C1 = 4 electron areas


geometry around inside  C1= tetrahedral
atoms C2 = 3 electron areas
 C2 = trigonal planar

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 123 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.7: Predict the hybridization
and bonding scheme for CH3CHO
Determine the C1 = tetrahedral
hybridization of the  C1 = sp3
interior atoms C2 = trigonal planar
 C2 = sp2
Sketch the molecule and
orbitals

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 124 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.7: Predict the hybridization
and bonding scheme for CH3CHO
Label the bonds

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 125 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Predict the hybridization of all
the atoms in H3BO3

H = can’t hybridize
B = 3 electron groups = sp2
O = 4 electron groups = sp3

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 126 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Predict the hybridization and
bonding scheme of all the atoms in NClO

•• •• ••
•O N Cl ••

•• s:Osp2─Nsp2
↑↓ ↑↓

N = 3 electron groups = sp2 O ↑↓ N


↑↓ s:Nsp2─Clp
↑↓
O = 3 electron groups = sp2
Cl = 4 electron groups = sp3 ↑↓ Cl
O N

p:Op─Np
Cl
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 127 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Problems with Valence Bond Theory
• VB theory predicts many properties better than
Lewis theory
bonding schemes, bond strengths, bond lengths,
bond rigidity
• However, there are still many properties of
molecules it doesn’t predict perfectly
magnetic behavior of O2
• In addition, VB theory presumes the electrons
are localized in orbitals on the atoms in the
molecule – it doesn’t account for delocalization
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 128 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Molecular Orbital Theory
• In MO theory, we apply Schrödinger’s wave
equation to the molecule to calculate a set of
molecular orbitals
 in practice, the equation solution is estimated
 we start with good guesses from our experience as to
what the orbital should look like
 then test and tweak the estimate until the energy of the
orbital is minimized
• In this treatment, the electrons belong to the
whole molecule – so the orbitals belong to the
whole molecule
 delocalization

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 129 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
LCAO
• The simplest guess starts with the atomic
orbitals of the atoms adding together to make
molecular orbitals – this is called the Linear
Combination of Atomic Orbitals method
weighted sum
• Because the orbitals are wave functions, the
waves can combine either constructively or
destructively

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 130 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Molecular Orbitals
• When the wave functions combine constructively,
the resulting molecular orbital has less energy
than the original atomic orbitals – it is called a
Bonding Molecular Orbital
 s, p
 most of the electron density between the nuclei
• When the wave functions combine destructively,
the resulting molecular orbital has more energy
than the original atomic orbitals – it is called an
Antibonding Molecular Orbital
 s*, p*
 most of the electron density outside the nuclei
 nodes between nuclei

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 131 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Interaction of 1s Orbitals

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 132 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Molecular Orbital Theory
• Electrons in bonding MOs are stabilizing
lower energy than the atomic orbitals
• Electrons in antibonding MOs are
destabilizing
higher in energy than atomic orbitals
electron density located outside the
internuclear axis
electrons in antibonding orbitals cancel
stability gained by electrons in bonding orbitals

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 133 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Energy Comparisons of Atomic Orbitals
to Molecular Orbitals

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 134 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
MO and Properties
• Bond Order = difference between number of
electrons in bonding and antibonding orbitals
 only need to consider valence electrons
 may be a fraction
 higher bond order = stronger and shorter bonds
 if bond order = 0, then bond is unstable compared to
individual atoms and no bond will form
• A substance will be paramagnetic if its MO
diagram has unpaired electrons
 if all electrons paired it is diamagnetic

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 135 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Dihydrogen, H2
Molecular
Hydrogen Hydrogen
Orbitals
Atomic Atomic
Orbital Orbital
s*

1s 1s
s

Because more electrons are in


bonding orbitals than are in antibonding orbitals,
net bonding interaction
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 136 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
H2

s* Antibonding MO
LUMO
s bonding MO
HOMO

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 137 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Dihelium, He2
Molecular
Helium Helium
Orbitals
Atomic Atomic
Orbital Orbital
s*

1s 1s
s
BO = ½(2-2) = 0

Because there are as many electrons in


antibonding orbitals as in bonding orbitals,
there is no net bonding interaction
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 138 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lithium Dilithium, Li2 Lithium
Atomic Molecular Atomic
Orbitals Orbitals Orbitals
s*

2s 2s
s Any fill energy level will
generate filled bonding
and antibonding MO’s;
BO = ½(4-2) = 1 s* therefore only need to
consider valence shell

1s 1s
Because more electrons are s
in bonding orbitals than are in
antibonding orbitals, there is a
net bonding interaction
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 139 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Li2

s* Antibonding MO
s bonding MO LUMO
HOMO

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 140 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Interaction of p Orbitals

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 141 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Interaction of p Orbitals

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 142 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 143 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
O2
• Dioxygen is paramagnetic
• Paramagnetic material has unpaired electrons
• Neither Lewis theory nor valence bond theory
predict this result

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 144 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
O2 as Described by Lewis and
VB Theory

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 145 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
s*
Oxygen Oxygen
Atomic Atomic
Orbitals p* Orbitals

2p O2 MO’s 2p
Because more electrons
are in bonding orbitals
p
than are in antibonding
orbitals, there is a net
s Because there are unpaired
electrons in the
bonding interaction antibonding orbitals,
BO = ½(8 be – 4 abe) s* O2 is predicted to be
BO = 2 paramagnetic

2s 2s
s
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 146 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.10: Draw a molecular orbital diagram
of N2− ion and predict its bond order and magnetic
properties
Write a MO s*2p
diagram for N2−
using N2 as a N has 5 valence
base electrons ↑ p*2p
Count the
number of 2 N = 10e−
valence (−) = 1e− ↑↓ s2p
electrons and total = 11e−
assign these to
the MOs
↑↓ ↑ ↓ p2p
following the
aufbau
principle, Pauli ↑↓ s*2s
principle &
Hund’s rule ↑↓ s2s

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 147 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 10.10: Draw a molecular orbital diagram
of N2− ion and predict its bond order and magnetic
properties
Calculate the
bond order by
BO = ½(8 be – 3 abe) s*2p
taking the BO = 2.5
number of Because this is lower ↑ p*2p
bonding
electrons and
than the bond order
subtracting the in N2, the bond ↑↓ s2p
number of should be weaker
antibonding
electrons, then
Because there
↑↓ ↑ ↓ p2p
dividing by 2
Determine are unpaired
whether the ion electrons, this ion ↑↓ s*2s
is paramagnetic is paramagnetic
or diamagnetic
↑↓ s2s

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 148 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Draw a molecular orbital diagram of C2+
and predict its bond order and magnetic properties

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 149 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Practice – Draw a molecular orbital diagram of C2+
and predict its bond order and magnetic properties
C has 4 valence
electrons s*2p

2 C = 8e− p*2p
(+) = −1e−
total = 7e−
s2p
BO = ½(5 be – 2 abe)
BO = 1.5 ↑↓ ↑ p2p
Because there
are unpaired ↑↓ s*2s
electrons, this ion
is paramagnetic ↑↓ s2s

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 150 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules & Ions
• When the combining atomic orbitals are
identical and equal energy, the contribution of
each atomic orbital to the molecular orbital is
equal
• When the combining atomic orbitals are
different types and energies, the atomic
orbital closest in energy to the molecular
orbital contributes more to the molecular
orbital

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 151 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules & Ions
• The more electronegative an atom is, the
lower in energy are its orbitals
• Lower energy atomic orbitals contribute
more to the bonding MOs
• Higher energy atomic orbitals contribute
more to the antibonding MOs
• Nonbonding MOs remain localized on the
atom donating its atomic orbitals

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 152 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
NO

a free radical

s2s Bonding MO BO = ½(6 be – 1 abe)


shows more BO = 2.5
electron density
near O because
it is mostly O’s
2s atomic orbital
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 153 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
HF

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 154 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Polyatomic Molecules

• When many atoms are combined together, the


atomic orbitals of all the atoms are combined to
make a set of molecular orbitals, which are
delocalized over the entire molecule
• Gives results that better match real molecule
properties than either Lewis or valence bond
theories

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 155 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ozone, O3

MO Theory:
Delocalized
p bonding
orbital of O3

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e 156 Copyright  2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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