AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND

GENDER (EEE 3209)

Lecture 4:
Models of Agricultural Extension Service Delivery
(continuation)

Mubangizi Narisi (PhD)

Semester 2: 2017/2018

9th March 2018

 Recap of previous lecture
 Future of agric extension

 Factors shaping future of extension

 Extension model (definition)

 Traditional supply driven extension model

– Description
– Potential
– Constraints
Demand-driven & participatory extension services
Tendency to reform the traditional supply driven extension services
into demand-driven participatory extension services characterized
by:
 Demand-driven & participatory approach

 Pluralistic providers of advisory services (public, NGOs, farmer

organizations, and private providers, etc)

 Pluralistic funding: gov’t, donors, farmers, NGOs

 Targeting vulnerable groups & empowering farmers to

demand & manage advisory services

 Focus & type of technology provided depends on demand

and/or donor objectives

 Coverage of service tends to be limited

Constraints of demand driven , participatory & pluralistic
extension services
Weak farmers’ capacity to express their demands

Wider variety of farmers’ needs (so many enterprises & farming

practices on a small scale) translating into higher costs to meet
them

Low farmers’ capacity to afford extension services (low incomes,

limited importance attached to extension services)

Limited availability of technical expertise to meet the demands

Potential for demand driven , participatory &
pluralistic extension services
Increased focus of government and other agencies on
commercialization of agriculture

Increased literacy levels of farmers (UPE & USE) translating into

more confidence

More civic education programs that have enhanced farmers’

awareness about their rights, roles and responsibilities

Changing context in which farmers operate (climate change and

climate variability, new high value enterprises for which there is no
indigenous knowledge)

Increased numbers of agencies (government, NGOs and private

companies and individuals e.g. consultancies, agro-input &
equipment dealers) involved in extension services
 Non-Governmental Organizations
NGOs fund and provide specialized extension services

Tend to provide better services in their focus area than

public extension

Tend to follow participatory approaches

Limited coverage

Work with public extension agents or hire own

extension providers
 Potential of providing demand-driven advisory
services & NGO models
Increasing number of NGOs providing demand-driven
advisory services

Increased focus of government and other agencies on

commercialization of agriculture

Increased numbers of agencies (government, NGOs and

private companies and individuals e.g. consultancies, agro-
input & equipment dealers ) involved in extension services

Orientation of donors & government projects & programs

to participatory approaches in project planning,
implementation and evaluation, e.g. Donor preference for
participatory projects; “Community Driven Development (CDD)
fund” at some sub-counties in Uganda
Potential of providing demand-driven
advisory services & NGO models…….
Increased literacy levels of farmers (UPE & USE)
translating into more confidence

More civic education programs that have enhanced

farmers’ awareness about their rights, roles and
responsibilities

Changing context in which farmers operate (climate

change and climate variability, new high value enterprises
for which there is no indigenous knowledge)
Constraints of demand-driven & NGO models
Low capacity of farmers to demand for technologies –due
to long exposure under supply driven approach

Low capacity of Agric Extension agents to provide some

Wider variety of farmers’ needs (so many enterprises &

farming practices on a small scale) translating into higher
costs to meet them

Low farmers’ capacity to afford extension services (low

incomes, limited importance attached to extension services)
Constraints of demand-driven & NGO models…
Policies & government financial support are weak.

Largely donor-funded -hence sustainability questionable.

Limited capacity to regulate and coordinate multiple

providers of advisory services –leading to multiple and
conflicting messages

Coverage in remote areas and among poor farmers still

limited.
 Private extension services
Provided mainly by private sector for example;
 Cooperatives/farmer groups provide extension services to
farmers

 Agricultural input companies: agro-chemicals, seeds &

implements

 Veterinary services –provided on a fee

 Commercial large-scale farmers who hire the own Agric. Extn

agents

 High value crops with out-grower schemes (e.g. sugarcane,

tea, flowers, etc)
 Potential for private extension model
New trends increase demand for private extension
providers;
 New drive to promote high value crops

 Renewed emphasis on cooperatives and farmer production

and marketing groups that provide demand for private services

 Demand-driven approaches require private Agric. extension

agents

 Weakening traditional extension services creating a vacuum

 Limited focus on postharvest handling, business planning and

management in the existing extension services
Constraints of private extension model
Poorly regulated –likelihood of misleading
/cheating farmers due to focusing on profit e.g. fake
equipments, chemicals e.t.c

Not accessible to poor farmers who can’t afford the

associated fees

Provision of services in remote areas is limited

Highly specialized –limiting capacity to provide key

technologies especially those that may not deliver
direct monetary benefits but are essential for
sustainability e.g. natural resource mgt (NRM)
Approaches to extension service
delivery
 What is an approach?
• An approach is the style of action within a system. It embodies the philosophy
of the system and is more like a doctrine for the system

• Approaches are characterized based on;

– Basic Assumptions made by proponents of the approach regarding the
problem at hand, the solution(s) and the operating env’t.

– The purpose/objective the approach is designed to achieved

– Nature of programme planning: How program planning is controlled &

how those in charge relate with the clients

– The nature of the field personnel e.g. Ratio of field staff to farmers, Levels
of training, reward system

– The resources required

– The typical implementation methods and techniques used

– How success is measured (indicators and mode of tracking them)

 Examples of extension approaches
1. General extension/conventional approach
2. Training and Visit (T&V) approach
3. Commodity approach
4. Agricultural participatory approach
5. Project approach
6. Farming systems research and extension (FSR/E)
7. Cost-sharing
8. Educational institute approach
9. Farmer Field Schools (FFS) e.t.c.

Note: The above approaches differ from each other in

terms of the seven characteristics above. Each
approach has its own strengths and weaknesses
 GENERAL EXTENSION APPROACH
(CONVENTIONAL)
Basic Assumption
– This approach assumes that technology and
information are available and are not being used by
rural people

– Rural people’s practices and living standards and

quality of life can be improved if the available
technologies are effectively communicated to them
 Purpose of conventional approach
Improve rural livelihood productivity (e.g.
farm productivity) through technology
transfer

Overall goal is to enhance rural household

living standard and quality of life
 Nature of programme planning for the
conventional approach
 This is top-down oriented as the technology is transferred
from extension to rural people.

 Decisions are generally made by the people at the top and

implemented through extension field staff

 The planning is centrally controlled and the priorities are

determined by the government functionaries

 Local people are very rarely involved in the setting the

priorities/agenda for the extension
 Conventional approach…..
Implementation techniques
 Demonstrations are used as a major technique
 In addition the Extension field staff hold
individual and group meetings with the farmers

Measure of Success
 Adoption rates of technologies and increase in
the national production of commodities being
emphasized in the national extension
programme