D.

4 High Level Only

• D.4 The Hardy-Weinberg Principle

– D.4.1 Explain how the Hardy-Weinberg
equation is derived
– D.4.2 Calculate allele, genotype and
phenotype frequencies for two alleles of a
gene using the Hardy Weinberg Equation
– D.4.3 State the Assumptions made when the
Hardy-Weinberg Equation is used

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 Hardy-Weinberg Equation Uses

• Useful in determining how fast a population is

changing (allele frequency is changing)
• Predicting outcomes of mating crosses

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 D.4.1 Explain how the Hardy-Weinberg
equation is derived
• p = frequency of DOMNANT allele in a population
• q = frequency of RECESSIVE allele in a
population
• Frequencies of the alleles on a chromosome must
add up to 1
• THUS
• p+q=1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 D.4.1 Explain how the Hardy-Weinberg
equation is derived
• p = frequency of DOMNANT allele in a population
– EXAMPLE: T frequency is 0.25 or 25%
• q = frequency of RECESSIVE allele in a
population
– Example: t frequency is 0.75 or 75%
• Frequencies of the alleles on a chromosome must
add up to 1 or 100%
• p+q=1 .75 + .25 = 1

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 D.4.1 Explain how the Hardy-Weinberg
equation is derived
• Apply p + q = 1 to a diploid situation
• Because we are all diploid ( p + q )2 =1
• If you remember your mathematics about
polynomials ( p + q )2 =1 can be changed to
– p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
• Now you know how the Hardy-weinberg equation
was derived

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 Hardy-Weinberg Equations---What it means..

• If p and q represent the relative frequencies of the

only two possible alleles in a population at a
particular locus, then
– p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
– And p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the
homozygous genotypes. Examples:
• p2 = p x p = TT (homozygous dominant)
• and 2pq represents the frequency of the
heterozygous genotype
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Hardy-Weinberg Equations---What it means..

• p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
• p2 = p x p = TT (homozygous dominant)
• q2 = q x q = tt ( homozygous recessive)
• 2 pq Heterozygote

T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Hardy-Weinberg Equation Uses

• Useful in determining how fast a population is

changing (allele frequency is changing)
• Predicting outcomes of mating crosses
Allele Recessive t q
Frequencies
Dominant T p

Genotype Homozygous Recessive q2

Frequencies
Heterozygote 2pq

Homozygous Dominant p2

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Example Problems: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

One Square Two Square One square

Genotypes TT 2 Tt tt

Phenotypes
¼ ½ ¼

• Frequency of TT = p2 = ¼
• Frequency of Tt = 2pq = ½
• Frequency tt = q2 = ¼
• ¼+½+¼=1
• 0.25 + 0.50 + 0.25 = 1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Problem 1 calculating allele frequency

• Recessive allele t is 10% of a given population.

Calculate the percentage of the dominant allele
• q = 0.10 or 10%
• p + q =1
• So…….p = 1 - 0.10
• p= 0.90 or 90%
• Remember this is allele frequency NOT
genotype frequency.

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 Problem 2 calculating allele frequency

• In a study 989 members of the population from example 1, it was found

that 11 people had showed the recessive phenotype (t). Calculate the
frequency of of the recessive allele (t).
• 1st calculate the percentage of people who have the recessive
phenotype (tt)
• 11/ 989 = 0.011 ----thus 1.1 % of the population have this phenotype
tt)
• Hence q2 = 0.011
• To calculate q (frequency of recessive allele) just take the square root
of q2 = 0.011
• √ q2 =√ 0.011 = 0.105
• This means that the frequency of this recessive allele is 10.5 % of the
population
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 Problem 3 calculating genotype frequency

• Use the information from the previous problems to fill in the

charter below:

Allele Recessive t q
Frequencies
Dominant T p

Genotype Homozygous Recessive q2

Frequencies
Heterozygote 2pq

Homozygous Dominant p2

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 Problem 3 calculating genotype frequency

• We know from problem 1, q= 0.10 so q2 = 0.01

• we know from problem 1, p = 0.9 so p2 = 0.81
• So 2pq = 2 x 0.10 x 0.9 = 0.18
Allele Recessive t q
0.1
Frequencies

Dominant T p
0.9

Genotype Frequencies Homozygous Recessive q2

0.01

Heterozygote 2pq
0.18
Homozygous Dominant p2
0.81

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 Practice Problem

In a randomly breeding population of mice, 640 had black fur

and 360 brown fur. Black fur is dominant to brown fur. The
Hardy-Weinberg Principle (p2 + 2pq + q2 =1) can be used
to calculate allele and phenotype frequencies.
• (a) Calculate the frequency of the recessive allele (1
point).
• Solve for q
• Calculate q2 frequency of homozygous recessive genotype
• q2 = 360/640 = 0.5625
• q = √q2 = √0.5625 = 0.75 or 75%

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The Hardy-Weinberg Theorem

• The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a

population that is not evolving

• It states that frequencies of alleles and

genotypes in a population’s gene pool remain
constant from generation to generation, provided
that only Mendelian segregation and
recombination of alleles are at work
• Mendelian inheritance preserves genetic
variation in a population

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 Preservation of Allele Frequencies

• In a given population where gametes contribute

to the next generation randomly, allele
frequencies will not change

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 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes a

population in which random mating occurs
• It describes a population where allele
frequencies do not change

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

• The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a

hypothetical population
• In real populations, allele and genotype
frequencies do change over time

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 • The five conditions for non-evolving populations
are rarely met in nature:
– Extremely large population size
– No gene flow
– No mutations
– Random mating
– No natural selection

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 • More Help check out this tutorial
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPkOAnK20kw

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings