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 Spin in QM and Magnetic resonance imaging
X-rays. EM wave with enough energy to kick electron off atom or
molecule (³ionize´). Molecular damage.

X-ray

@ u
 
è  
  

Harmless Methods =
 

    
MRI- uses radio waves, very low frequency/energy
electromagnetic radiation.
How many had an MRI?
 MRI- like optical spectroscopy to selectively detect atoms,
But uses radiofrequency transitions between quantum levels.

‡What are these different quantum states?

‡How can they be used to tell different atoms apart?
‡What physics determines signal strength and selectivity
of MRI signal?
‡Why do they put you inside that giant can for MRI?
‡Why does it make so much noise?

MRI entirely the creation of quantum mechanics.

1. understood the QM of magnetism in basic particles
(atoms, electrons, protons, atomic nuclei)
2. Figured out how it could be useful: determine composition
of materials, and medical imaging.
 Bunch of ideas- none hard, but put lot of them together:

1. Angular momentum of electron makes magnet (strength

given by ³magnetic moment, O´.
2. Orientation of angular momentum is quantized (Lz quantized).
3. #1&2 show up/are proved in experiment looking at how atoms
are deflected in spatially varying magnetic field (Stern-Gerlach).
4. Atoms with electron in S state (L=0) shows deflection and
other stuff è Surprise, electron has magnetic moment even if
in state with angular momentum = 0. Unexpected intrinsic
property the particle (³spin´). Orientation is quantized-- ³up´ or
³down´.
5. #4 implies that there are additional quantized energy levels for
electron in uniform magnetic field. ³up energy, down energy´.
Ë. Can make transitions between these spin levels, like
between N,L levels in atoms, but uses oscillating magnetic
fields rather than EM fields. Also level separation depends on
applied mag. field, but much smaller than for atomic N,L levels.
7. Nuclei of atoms have spin and associated magnetic moments
just like electrons, except magnetic moments 1000-10000 times
smaller. Each different type of atom has different moment.
³nuclear fingerprint´.
8. Looking at nucleus spin flip transitions, can identify different
types of atoms, similar to optical spectroscopy in a gas, but
this nuclear spin spectroscopy (³nuclear magnetic resonance´,
NMR) will also work in a solid, including living tissue.
9. Can use NMR to measure distribution of H atoms in human
body, and chemical environment = ³magnetic resonance
imaging, MRI´.
History- putting atoms in magnetic fields to see what happens.

Putting atoms in magnetic fields to look at forces.

a. What happens to regular magnet in uniform B field?
red end is North pole

a. moves upward , b. rotates so N up, c. rotates so N down

d. both a and b. e. moves downward

ans b. Homogeneous field makes magnet rotate, not move.

Force pulling N up, equal force pulling S end down.
Torque but no net force.
History- putting atoms in magnetic fields to see what happens.
Putting atoms in magnetic fields to look at forces.
(regular magnet in uniform B field makes magnet rotate,
torque, not force)

(inhomogeneous field )stronger on top

a. rotate, b. move up, c. move down, d. move to right, e.

move to left
ans. b. stronger force up on N than force down on S. Up wins.

If magnet was pointing opposite direction, force is down.

History- putting atoms in magnetic fields to see what happens.
Send beam of atoms through uniform B field, see no effect.
Doesn¶t mean very much because bar magnets would do same.

(homogeneous field ) no deflection

(inhomogeneous field )stronger on top

atoms bend up or down by precise small amounts, or

no deflection. Never anything in between.
History- putting atoms in magnetic fields to see what happens.
Putting atoms in magnetic fields to look at forces.
(inhomogeneous field )stronger on top

Experimental observation (Stern and Gerlach) atoms bend up

or down by precise small amounts.
Never anything in between. L =1, up, middle, down. like book
If corresponding experiment with a beam of bar magnets
sent fast (so no time to rotate) through an inhomogenous
B field would see:

smeared out over range of paths, according to orientation.

 spinning disc of charge, has angular momentum.
------ Produces magnetic dipole moment.
---------
-------
Similar to electron wave function with angular
momentum. So no great surprise.

What seems strange is that only can have specific

orientations in space. Spatial orientation quantized!

Seems weird, but already assumed when said Lz

is quantized.
History- putting atoms in magnetic fields to see what happens.
Send beam of H atoms in 1 S state (L=0) through inhomogenous
field. Would see what?
a. deflect up, b. deflect down, c. no deflection, d. would
go up, down, or nondeflected, e. only up or down.

e. L=0 state H atoms bend only up or down.

Never anything in between.

http://www.if.ufrgs.br/~betz/quantum/SGPeng.htm
Putting atoms (H) in magnetic fields to look at forces.
(inhomogeneous field )stronger on top

Experimental discovery.
º

    





 
  




 
 







New quantum label (in addition to n, l, m)
 Bunch of ideas- none hard, but put lot of them together.
1. Angular momentum of electron makes magnet (strength
given by ³magnetic moment, O´.
2. Orientation of angular momentum is quantized (Lz quantized).
3. #1&2 show up/are proved in experiment looking at how atoms
are deflected in spatially varying magnetic field (Stern-Gerlach).
4. Atoms with electron in S state (L=0) shows deflection and
other stuff è Surprise, electron has magnetic moment even if
in state with angular momentum = 0. Unexpected intrinsic
property the particle (³spin´). Orientation is quantized-- ³up´ or
³down´.
5. #4 implies that there are additional quantized energy levels for
electron in uniform magnetic field. ³up energy, down energy´.
 Ouantization of magnetic orientation. ³Spin´
Electron has magnetic moment, can point only up or down.
³Spin ½´ New quantum label (in addition to n, l, m when in atom)

Two ³types´ of electrons. Can have 2 per level without

violating Pauli exclusion principle. Not identical .
Apply uniform magnetic field- turns into quantized
energy levels.
e For any magnet, E =-µ
ÿ, where µ is magnetic moment,
but now only points up or down, so only two possible E¶s.
e B µ

ǻE = 2µB
Energy
B
µ
 Ouantization of magnetic orientation. ³Spin´

When we apply uniform magnetic field- turns into quantized

energy levels.
For any magnet, E =-µ
ÿ, where µ is magnetic moment,
but now only points up or down, so only two possible E¶s.

What is fundamentally different

about this quantization of energy
compared to energy levels in atom?
B µ
We control it!! Energy depends on B
Energy ǻE = 2µB we apply!
B
µ
 
 

  
  

Protons and neutrons also have spin and magnetic
moments.
proton spin=+½ , so also only point up or down,
but magnetic moment much smaller than for electron
(and points in opposite direction).

m.m. m.m.

e p
 è each atomic nucleus has particular spin and magnetic
moment. Depends on how all the protons and neutrons are
hooked together
(and quarks inside them, not understood, but well measured)

magnet moment µ
in units (H = 8.8 x 10-8 eV/T è 42.5 MHz/T to flip)

µH- ³1´, µN = 1/14, µNa =¼ etc. for others

 


Energy

so each type of nucleus has different energy splitting,

proportional to B field
 magnet moment µ
in units (H = 8.8 x 10-8 eV/T è 42.5 MHz/T to flip)

µH- ³1´, µN = 1/14, µNa =¼ etc. for others

Put chunk of material in a really big magnetic field

(2 Tesla = 4000 G).

Separation of nuclear spin energy levels is:

a. bigger than thermal energy, and > normal separation of
levels in atom observed in optical spectrum.
b. > thermal energy, < separation of atom levels.
c. ~ thermal energy, < separation of atom levels.
d. > thermal energy, ~ separation of atom levels.
e. << thermal energy, < < separation of atom levels.
 magnet moment µ
in units (H = 8.8 x 10-8 eV/T è 42.5 MHz/T to flip)

µH- ³1´, µN = 1/14, µNa =¼ etc. for others

(2 Tesla ) €  ! "#$
 %!&'()* +
Atomic levels separated by 2-10 eV
thermal energy kT=1/40 eV = 0.025 eV.

So ans. e. spin energy levels split by << kT, <<< atom levels

in 2 T field, ǻE = 2µB =h è 85 MHz to flip proton

(radio wave)


Physicists understand all about atomic, --electron, and nuclear
magnetic moments .

Measure energy levels, magnetic moments super precisely.

Everything checked and tested incredibly precisely in isolated
atoms.
 looking inside materials
Take a container filled with blob of stuff. Apply 2 T
magnetic field (big!), measure absorption of radio waves
over large frequency range.
Would see
a. absorption at only one frequency.
b. absorption at one frequency for each B = 2T
kind of atom. stuff
c. absorption at many frequencies for each Det
kind of atom.
d. no absorption RF
generator

show simplified MRI simulation, only H atoms.

B current 50 A, Ë.5 x 107 Hz
Take a solid made up of molecules, apply 2 T B field,
measure absorption of radio waves at different frequencies.
B = 2T stuff
Det
RF
generator

three elements, ratios as

absorption shown below

0
21.25 MHz 85.00 MHz freq.
Ë.07 MHz =1/14 H = Na =H
= ??
Na nuclei res. freq.(= 42.5 MHz/T x ¼ x 2T = 21.25 MZ = ¼ H)
 magnet moment µ
in units (H = 8.8 x 10-8 eV/T = 42.5 MHz/T)

H- ³1´, N = 1/14, Na ¼, etc.

Brilliant idea: Have a glob of unknown stuff. Find out what

it is by putting in mag. field and look at amount of radio
waves absorbed at each frequency corresponding to
flipping magnetic moment of each type of nucleus.
è£uclear magnetic resonance- analysis of materials
Multibillion $$$ industry.
1) Each atomic nuclei has a distinct signature that is not
messed up by surroundings.
2) Radio waves go through almost everything pretty
easily.
 Bunch of ideas- none hard, but put lot of them together.
1. Angular momentum of electron makes magnet (strength
given by ³magnetic moment, O´.
2. Orientation of angular momentum is quantized (Lz quantized).
3. #1&2 show up/are proved in experiment looking at how atoms
are deflected in spatially varying magnetic field (Stern-Gerlach).
4. Atoms with electron in S state (L=0) shows deflection and
other stuff è Surprise, electron has magnetic moment even if
in state with angular momentum = 0. Unexpected intrinsic
property the particle (³spin´). Orientation is quantized-- ³up´ or
³down´.
5. #4 implies that there are additional quantized energy levels for
electron in uniform magnetic field. ³up energy, down energy´.
Ë. Can make transitions between these spin levels, like
between N,L levels in atoms, but uses oscillating magnetic
fields rather than EM fields. Also level separation depends on
applied mag. field, but much smaller than for atomic N,L levels.
7. Nuclei of atoms have spin and associated magnetic moments
just like electrons, except magnetic moments 1000-10000 times
smaller. Each different type of atom has different moment.
³nuclear fingerprint´.
8. Looking at nucleus spin flip transitions, can identify different
types of atoms, similar to optical spectroscopy in a gas, but
this nuclear spin spectroscopy (³nuclear magnetic resonance´,
NMR) will also work in a solid, including living tissue.
9. Can use NMR to measure distribution of H atoms in human
body, and chemical environment = ³magnetic resonance
imaging, MRI´.
Magnetic resonance imaging. (MRI)
Detect density of H atoms throughout body. More H than
anything else, and magnetic moment biggest of common
stuff. Different tissues have different molecules = different
# H atoms.

H atoms--tiny magnets
One of most challenging engineering problems ever faced:
‡detect small power at radio frequencies- little photon energies
‡tiny fraction of atoms absorb because of thermal energy
‡need extremely uniform B field
‡want to get good spatial resolution

solutions-
1) make B big as possible-- win twice: i) increase ǻE/kT, more
absorb, ii) photon energies get bigger.
D

2) Design really uniform, constant in time magnets
so atoms not shifting in and out of resonance. 
3) Develop way beyond state-of-art electronics and
detectors.
4) Use a bunch of detection and signal processing tricks so
more complicated than my description, but basic physics same.
Good for detecting amount of H through whole body, but
how to look at details in particular location, like part of
brain??
Make magnetic field different across body.
Use magnetic field dependence of resonance.

Resonant frequency (radio

wave frequency) to flip spin of
H nucleus at left ear (LE)
[
 [ [
right ear (RE), and nose (£).

ÿ
 a. same at all three places.

b. RE most, nose second, LE least
ÿ
 c. LE most, nose second, RE least
ÿ
d. nose least, RE and LE same and
higher.
e. nose most energy, RE and LE less.
ans. c, E = 2µB, mri sim
 change B,
now energy
matches at
different slice.

ÿ
ÿ

matches only at
one B = one slice.
h =2µB Tells how many H
in that slice!

Power absorbed tells you how many Power absorbed tells you
H atoms only in slice of head where how many H atoms only in
h =2µB.  same, vary B gradients. new slice of head.
Change B variation over time. Get number of H atoms
at each different slice. Change B by changing currents
through wires. Move a little, makes lots of noise!

To get measure of each spot (not just slope) make B

vary in 3 D. Slices of slices

Have B varying in x,y, z.

Measure power absorbed.
Change B's and repeat over and over.
Map out H atom distribution in
entire head/body. Takes a while.
Makes lots of noise turning on and off
big magnet coils and RF pulses.
Getting even fancier!!
If measure frequency really really carefully, can tell what
type of molecule the H atom is in. Other atoms change
the B field a little.

Hemoglobin
without
¢ ¢
oxygen.

Hemoglobin with oxygen.

Oxygen shifts magnetic field.
H atom flips at slightly different
frequency! Can tell difference.

proton spectra in CDCl3

Take a solid made up of molecules, want to look at sodium
(Na) nuclei. Apply 2 T B field, measure absorption of radio
waves at Na nuclei resonant frequency. (= 42.5 MHz/T x ¼ x
2T = 21.25 MZ = 8.8 x 10-8 eV)
a. Would have one radio photon absorbed by each Na nuclei.
b. Would have one photon absorbed for every few Na nuclei.
c. Would have a few photons absorbed for
every million Na atoms. stuff
d. would have no photons absorbed. B = 2T Det

ans. c. Energy gap small

compared to thermal energy kT (=.025 eV).
Population difference between upper and
lower differ 10Ë - 3.5
by e-ǻE/kT ~ 1-ǻE/kT ~ 1- 9 x 10-8 eV/.025 eV
E
= 1- 3.5 x 10-Ë. So bottom has tiny bit more.
That fraction (3.5/10Ë) absorbs photons. 10Ë