Evaporation

• Reading: Applied Hydrology Sections 4.1

and 4.2
• Quotation : "There is only one good, that is
knowledge; there is only one evil, that is
ignorance."
Contributed by Matt Harold.
 Evaporation
• Terminology
– Evaporation – process by which liquid
water passes directly to the vapor phase
– Transpiration - process by which liquid
water passes from liquid to vapor through
plant metabolism
– Sublimation - process by which water
passes directly from the solid phase to the
vapor phase
Factors Influencing Evaporation
• Energy supply for Rn Net radiation
vaporization (latent heat)
– Solar radiation
• Transport of vapor away from u Air Flow
evaporative surface E Evaporation
– Wind velocity over surface
– Specific humidity gradient
above surface
• Vegetated surfaces
– Supply of moisture to the
surface
– Evapotranspiration (ET)
• Potential Evapotranspiration
(PET) – moisture supply is not
limited
 Evaporation from a Water
Surface
• Simplest form of evaporation
– From free liquid of permanently saturated
surface
 Evaporation from a Pan Net radiation
Vapor flow rate

Sensible
CS
heat
h to air
Area, A

Heat conducted
to ground

• National Weather Service Class A

type
• Installed on a wooden platform in a
grassy location
• Filled with water to within 2.5 inches
of the top
• Evaporation rate is measured by
manual readings or with an analog
output evaporation gauge
Methods of Estimating Evaporation
• Energy Balance Method
• Aerodynamic method
• Combined method
 Energy Method
• CV contains liquid and vapor phase water
• Continuity - Liquid phase
h
d
 m v    w d    wV  dA
dt CV CS
Hs Rn v
m

dh dh 0
a
 w A  E No flow of liquid
dt dt water through CS

E
dh
dt
w

 v   w AE
m
G
 Energy Method…
• Continuity - Vapor phase
h d
m v   qv  a d   qv  aV  dA
dt CV CS

Hs Rn v
m 0
m v   qv  aV  dA Steady flow of air
CS over water
a
  w AE
E
dh
dt
w  w AE   qv  aV  dA
CS

G 1
E  qv  aV  dA
 w A CS
 Energy Method…
• Energy Eq. dH dW d
   (eu  V 2 / 2  gz) d
dt dt dt CV
 
  (eu  V 2 / 2  gz) V  dA
0 CS

Hs Rn v
m
 0; V  0, h  const.

dH d
  eu  w d
a dt dt CV

 Rn  H s  G
E
dh
dt
w h
dH
 Rn  H s  G
dt
G
 Hs Rn v
m

Energy Method… a

• Energy Eq. for Water in CV E

dh
dt
w h

dH G
 Rn  H s  G
dt
Assume:
1. Constant temp of water in CV
2. Change of heat is change in internal energy of water evaporated
dH
 lv m v
dt
 v  Rn  H s  G
lv m Recall:    w AE
m
Neglecting sensible and ground heat
1 fluxes
E Rn  H s  G  R
lv  w A Er  n
lv  w
Wind as a Factor in Evaporation
• Wind has a major effect on evaporation, E
– Wind removes vapor-laden air by convection
– This Keeps boundary layer thin
– Maintains a high rate of water transfer from
liquid to vapor phase
– Wind is also turbulent
• Convective diffusion is several orders of magnitude
larger than molecular diffusion
 Aerodynamic Method
• Include transport of vapor Rn Net radiation

away from water surface

as function of:
– Humidity gradient above Air Flow
surface
E Evaporation
– Wind speed across surface
• Upward vapor flux
dqv qv1  qv2
m    a K w  a K w
dz z2  z1
• Upward momentum flux 
K w qv1  qv2 
m  
du u2  u1 K m u 2  u1 
  a K m  a K m
dz z2  z1
 Aerodynamic Method…
Rn Net radiation

K w qv1  qv2 
m  
K m u 2  u1 
Air Flow
• Log-velocity profile
Z E Evaporation
u 1  Z 
 ln 
u * k  Z o 
u
• Momentum flux
 k u  u  
2
  a  2 1 
 lnZ 2 Z1   
K w k 2  a qv1  qv2 u 2  u1 
m 
K m lnZ 2 Z1 2
Thornthwaite-Holzman Equation
 Aerodynamic Method…
 
K w k 2  a qv1  qv2 u 2  u1  Rn Net radiation
m 
K m lnZ 2 Z1 2

Air Flow
qv and u
E Evaporation
• Often only available at 1
elevation
• Simplifying
0.622k 2  a eas  ea u 2 Ea  Beas  ea 
m 
PlnZ 2 Z o 2
0.622k 2  a u 2
   w AE ea  vapor pressure @ Z 2 B
P w lnZ 2 Z o 2
m
 Combined Method
• Evaporation is calculated by
– Aerodynamic method E  Er 
Rn
• Energy supply is not limiting lv  w
– Energy method
E  Ea  Beas  ea 
• Vapor transport is not limiting
• Normally, both are limiting, so use a combination
method
 
E Er  Ea
    Priestly & Taylor


E  1.3 Er

des

4098es

C p Kh p  
dT (237.3  T ) 2 0.622lv K w
 Example

• Use Combo Method to find Evaporation

– Elev = 2 m,
lv  2.501x106  2370T
– Press = 101.3 kPa,
– Wind speed = 3 m/s,  (2500  2.36 * 25) x103  2441kJ/kg
– Net Radiation = 200 W/m2,
– Air Temp = 25 degC, Rn 200
Er    7.10 mm/day
– Rel. Humidity = 40%, lv  w 3
2441x10 * 997
 Example (Cont.)

• Use Combo Method to find Evaporation

– Elev = 2 m,
– Press = 101.3 kPa, eas  3167 Pa
– Wind speed = 3 m/s,
– Net Radiation = 200 W/m2, ea  Rh * eas  0.4 * 3167  1267 Pa
– Air Temp = 25 degC,
– Rel. Humidity = 40%,

0.622k 2  a u 2 0.622 * 0.4 2 *1.19 * 3 11

B   m/Pa  s
 
4.54 x10
P w lnZ 2 Z o 2
101.3 * 997 ln 2 3x10 4
2

Ea  4.54x1011 3167  1267 * (1000 mm / 1 m) * (86400s / 1day)

 7.45 mm/day
 Example (Cont.)

• Use Combo Method to find Evaporation

–
C p Kh p 1005*101.3x103
Elev = 2 m,    67.1 Pa/degC
– Press = 101.3 kPa, 0.622lv K w 0.622 * 2441x103
– Wind speed = 3 m/s,
4098* 3167
– Net Radiation = 200 W/m2,    188.7 Pa/degC
– Air Temp = 25 degC, (237.3  25) 2

– Rel. Humidity = 40%,

 
 0.738  0.262
   

 
E Er  Ea  0.738 * 7.10  0.262 * 7.45  7.2 mm/day
   
 Example

• Use Priestly-Taylor Method to find

Evaporation rate for a water body
– Net Radiation = 200 W/m2, 
E  1.3 Er Priestly & Taylor
– Air Temp = 25 degC,  


Er  7.10 mm/day  0.738
 

E  1.3 * 0.738* 7.10  6.80 mm/day

 Evapotranspiration
• Evapotranspiration
– Combination of evaporation from soil surface and
transpiration from vegetation
– Governing factors
• Energy supply and vapor transport
• Supply of moisture at evaporative surfaces
– Reference crop
• 8-15 cm of healthy growing green grass with abundant water
– Combo Method works well if B is calibrated to local
conditions
 Potential Evapotranspiration
• Multiply reference crop ET by a Crop Coefficient and a
Soil Coefficient ET  k s kc ETr

ET  Actual ET CORN
1
ETr  Reference Crop ET 0.9

kc  Crop Coefficient; 0.8

0.7
Crop Coefficient, kc

0.2  kc  1.3 0.6

k s  Soil Coefficient; 0.5

0.4
0  ks  1 0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time Since Planting (Days)

http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/04707.html
 Resources on the web
• Evaporation maps from NWS climate
prediction center
– http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/soilmst/e.shtml
• Climate maps from NCDC
– http://www.nndc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/climaps/climaps.pl
• Evapotranspiration variability in the US
– http://geochange.er.usgs.gov/sw/changes/natural/et/