LARUTAN

Types of Solution
• Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or
more substances of ions or molecules.
– Solvent = component which is the component in greater
amount or medium in which the solute dissolves
– Solute = component which is present in the smaller
amount or substance that is dissolved.

• Colloid – appears to be a homogeneous

mixture, but particles are much bigger, but not
filterable. Example : fog, smoke, paint, milk,
smoke, etc.
• Suspension: larger particle sizes, filterable.
Solutions:
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of substances on the molecular level.
One substance is said to be the solvent, the others are the solutes. A solute is
dissolved in the solvent. Usually, the solvent is more abundant, but this is not
always clear.
A solution can consist of materials of different phases or the same phase, as
shown in the table below.

From the perspective of living organisms, the most important solvent is water.
Solutions where water is the solvent are said to be aqueous solutions.
 AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

“solutions which water is the solvent”

[ X(aq) ]
Example :

The solution NaCl(aq) is sodium chloride NaCl(s) dissolved

in water H2O(l)

The solute is NaCl(s) and the solvent is H2O(l)

Types of Aqueous Solutions

 Non-electrolyte : a substance that does

not conduct electricity when dissolved in
water.
 Molecular compounds and insoluble ionic
compounds are non-electrolytes.

 Electrolyte : a substance that conducts

electricity when dissolved in water.
 Acids, bases and soluble ionic solutions are
electrolytes.
Types of Solutions:

Suspension

H2O Colloid
Solid Nonelectrolyte
Solution Weak
Electrolyte
Strong

Solution: - homogeneous at the molecular level  clear

- the solute molecules are approximately the same size as
the solvent molecules
Nonelectrolyte: - retains molecular form in solution
- non-ionic compounds (usually; exceptions acids, NH3 )
- will not conduct electricity

Strong Electrolyte: - ionic compounds and strong acids

- dissociate completely into ions in solution
- conduct electricity
 Strong Electrolyte Nonelectrolyte

H2O H2O
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) CH3OH(l) CH3OH(aq)

Undissolved NaCl
crystal H2O molecules
 Weak Electrolyte: - “weak” acids and bases
- partial dissociation into ions
- in equilibrium
- conduct electricity, but not as well as strong
electrolytes at same concentration
- e.g. acetic acid (CH3COOH), ammonia (NH3)

CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

or CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

+
-

Note: In solution, some remains undissociated.

The classification of strong electrolyte, weak electrolyte, and nonelectrolytes
relates to the ability of a solution to carry electrical current, among other
things.

Physiologically speaking, the fluids of a living organism generally have to

maintain a certain concentration of electrolytes.
Solubility:
The solubility of a particular substance in a given solvent depends on the
nature of the solute and solvent, as well as certain physical factors such as
temperature and pH.
If a solute dissolves in a solvent, it is said to be soluble. If no detectable
amount dissolves, it is insoluble in the solvent. If only a very small amount
dissolves, it might be said to be sparingly soluble. (The distinction between
insoluble and sparingly soluble is often a subjective matter.)

If as much solute as possible

has dissolved, the solution is
said to be saturated. Prior
to this, the solution is
unsaturated with the solute.

The concentration of solute

dissolved in a saturated
solution is its solubility.
When a solute has reached saturation, any additional amout added to the
solution will remain undissolved.
In the case of a solid solute, the process where the solute comes out of
solution to re-form the solid is called precipitation or crystallization.

The saturation of bodily fluids with certain solutes can lead to the precipitation
of these substances, leading to a variety of medical conditions.
gout - is a condition caused by the precipitation of uric acid in the
joints.
kidney stones - are caused by the precipitation of calcium oxalate and
calcium phosphate in the urinary tract.

Solubility is affected by temperature, but solids and liquids behave differently

from gases in this respect.

Solids and liquids - solubility increases as temperature increases

Gases - solubility decreases as temperature increases
Solubility of Ionic Compounds:

As already noted, when an ionic compound dissolves, it dissociates into its

individual ions.
H2O
e.g. NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
H2O
K2SO4 (s) 2 K+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)

However, some ionic compounds are classified as insoluble.

H2O
e.g. AgCl (s) X
No significant reaction occurs
H2O
BaSO4 (s) X
It is possible for some common ions to predict whether or not the ionic
compound they are found in will be soluble.

To do this, we use solubility rules.

It is important to know these rules to be able to make general predictions

about solubility. These will be tested in the computer exercises.
 Solubility - Usually expressed as g solute/ 100 g solvent
(sometimes for aqueous solutions [any solution in which
H2O is the solvent] g solute/ 100 mL solvent)

Saturated Solution – A solution in which the maximum

amount of solute that will dissolve is present. Each
solute-solvent system is unique

Unsaturated Solution – A solution in which less than the

maximum amount of solute is dissolved.
Supersaturated Solution – Occasionally, during the
dissolving process, more than the theoretical maximum
amount of solute has dissolved. This is an unstable
situation. In time, some of the solute crystallizes out of the
solution. Frequent stirring during the solution process can
help prevent this.

Crystallization is basically the same as precipitation,

except that the processes result in solids of different
appearance. Precipitation usually results in small
particles while crystallization frequently results in larger
crystals.
In order for a solute to dissolve in a solvent, the solute
particles have to fit in between the solvent particles. This
usually can help us predict which solutes will dissolve in which
solvents. This is usually accomplished with solute-solvent
attractions. There is a general Rule of Thumb for solubility:
Like Dissolves Like. We will try to explain each case briefly

Some solutions have complete miscibility (gas in gas, many

liquids in liquids). Miscibility means complete solubility in
any proportion.
 Precipitation Reactions:

A precipitation reaction occurs when two ions (a cation and an anion)

dissolved in solution react to form an insoluble precipitate (solid).

This normally happens when two solutions, each containing a soluble

compound of one of the ions, are mixed.
For example, consider the case where we mix solutions of sodium chloride
and silver nitrate.

NaCl (s) AgNO3 (s)

NO3- Na+ Cl- NO3- Na+ NO3-

Na+ Cl- Ag+

Cl- Na+
+ NO3- Ag+
Ag+ NO -
Cl -
3 Na+
NO3- Na+
Ag+ AgCl

Precipitate
We would write this as:

NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq)  AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq) (Molecular Equation)
or Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)  AgCl (s) (Net Ionic Equation)
Solubility varies with temperature. For a gas dissolved in a
liquid, the solubility always decreases as temperature
increases. For solids dissolved in liquids, there is no general
rule about the variation of solubility with temperature, except
that most often solubility increases as temperature increases.
See figure 12.3 on page 512 in your text:
External pressure has no effect on the solubilities of liquids
and solids in a liquid solvent. It does effect greatly the
solubility of gases in liquids. The effect can be calculated
using Henry’s Law, which says that the solubility of a gas
in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of
that gas over the solution.
cA = kPA , where cA is the molar concentration of gas A, PA
is the partial pressure of A over the solution and k is a
constant that depends only on T. This law is dramatically
illustrated with carbonated beverages. CO2 is dissolved in
water in a sealed container and CO2 is added to the container,
thus increasing the PCO2 and thus increasing the amount of
CO2 dissolved. When the container is opened, the CO2 above
the solution escapes, thus the solubility of the CO2 decreases
and CO2 has to escape from the solution, hence the bubbling
effect. If left open long enough all the CO2 escapes and the
beverage becomes flat.
Most gases obey Henry’s Law with some notable exceptions,
especially if the gas reacts with water. In those cases much
higher solubilities can be obtained. A good example is
ammonia in water.
LARUTAN IDEAL
liq vap Eq. in Binary Mixtures
• Both the liquid and
the vapor phase are
binary mixtures of A
and B.
• x A, x B are the mole
fractions in the liquid.
• y A, y B are the mole
fractions in the vapor.
• p A, p B are the partial
pressures in the
vapor.
 Ethyl Acetate/Acetic Anhydride
800

700

600

500
p /torr

400

300

200

100

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

xethyl acetate
 Raoult’s Law

• The vapor pressure of a substance

varies linearly with its mole
fraction in solution.

PA= xA PA*

• Raoult’s Law becomes exact as

xA 
• Raoult’s Law becomes increasingly
Ideal Gas Chemical Potential

 gas
i
   RT ln Pi / P
0
i  0

i0 = standard chemical potential of i (at one atmosphere)
Pi = partial pressure of gas I
P0 = standard pressure (1 atmosphere)
Ideal Solution Model

isolution
 i
vapor

isolution
   RT ln( Pi / P )
i
0 0

isolution
   RT ln( Pi / P )  RT ln xi
i
0 * 0

isolution
   RT ln xi
*
i

wherei* is the chemical potential of the pure liquid

 Ideal Heat of Mixing
Gmixing  n A  A  nB  B - (n A  *A  nB  B* )
 n A RT ln x A  nB RT ln xB

 Gmixing 
S mixing  -   -n A R ln x A - nB R ln xB
 T  p

H mixing  Gmixing  TS mixing  0

Molecular Basis for Ideal Sol’ns.
 In pure liquid A, there are only
A-A interactions.
 In pure liquid B, there are only
B-B interactions.
 In solutions of A and B, there
are A-B interactions as well.
 Hmixing= 0
means that all three
interactions are of equal
strength.
 Ethyl Acetate - Acetic Anhydride
800

700

600

500
Ptotal
p /torr

400
Pethyl acetate
300

200
Pacetic andydride
100

0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

xethyl acetate
Total Vapor Pressure
As a function of x1 , the liquid composition

Ptotal  P1  P2  x P  x P 1 1
*
2 2
*

 x P  (1 - x1 ) P
1 1
*
2
*

 P  ( P - P ) x1
2
*
1
*
2
*
Total Vapor Pressure
As a function of y1 , the vapor composition

P1 x1 P1*
y1   *
Ptotal P2  ( P1* - P2* ) x1

y1 P2*
x1  *
P1  ( P2* - P1* ) y1

P1* P2*
Ptotal  *
P1  ( P2* - P1* ) y1
 P-z Diagram
benzene-toluene solution: 298 K
100
Total vapor pressure (torr)

80

60

40

20

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

mole fraction benzene

Ideal Boiling Point Composition

Ptotal  P  ( P - P ) x1  P
2
*
1
*
2
* 0

P -P 0 *
x1  * 2
P1 - P 2
*

x1 is the composition of the liquid

Ideal Boiling Point Composition
*
P1 xP
y1   * 1 1
P P2  ( P - P2 ) x1
*
1
*

P (P - P )
* 0 *
y1  1 2
P ( P1 - P )
0 *
2
*

y1 is the composition of the vapor

 B.P. – Composition Diagram

Tb
vapor TA*
Tb for the liquid
with composition xA

boiling pt. of pure B boiling

pt. of
TB* liquid pure A
composition of the
vapor that boils off yA xA
at Tb
zA
 Azeotropes

Tb

azeotropic
boiling pt. vapor TA*

TB* liquid

xA azeotropic
composition