Nuclear Power Generation

Nuclear Reaction
• The interaction between a projectile which may be a neutron, a
proton or an α-particle and a target-nucleus which is usually a heavy
element.
• In nuclear reactions, the atomic numbers and mass numbers must
balance on both sides of the equation.
• However, the masses of isotopes on both sides of the equation do not
balance i.e., either an increase or decrease in mass between
reactants and products.
• The masses can be converted into energy by Einstein’s equation. Thus
a nuclear reaction is associated with a release or absorption of
energy.
• If there is a decrease in total mass after the reaction, then there will
be release of energy and vice-versa.
• In nuclear reaction, the nuclei of elements starting reaction do not
show up as products.
• The products may consist of either isotopes of reactants or
completely different.
• The interaction between the projectile and target nucleus may result
in elastic scattering, inelastic scattering and capture or absorption.
• If a neutron collides with a nucleus and the nucleus remains
unchanged in its isotopic composition and the neutron undergoes a
change in its direction of motion (with or without change in energy)
then the process is called scattering.
• If the neutron disappears from the system, the process is called
capture or absorption.
• In elastic scattering, the classical laws of conservation of mass, energy
and momentum will hold.
• The total kinetic energy of the struck nucleus and the projectile
remains unchanged.
• There is neither release or absorption of energy, there being only
redistribution of kinetic energy of the colliding particles according to
the laws of hard-ball collisions.
• The compound nucleus may emit a similar particle to one captured by
the nucleus.
• Thus the elastic scattering of neutron with carbon is written as 12C
(n.n) 12C.
• In elastic scattering, the energy of the starting particle is quite large
and the target nucleus is raised to an excited state.
• The compound attains its ground state by emitting gamma radiation.
• Thus the total kinetic energy of the colliding particles reduces after
the collision, the difference being the γ-radiation.
• There is neither absorption nor release of energy and the incident
particle and the ejected particle are identical.
• This process occurs e.g., when a fast neutron hits a 238U nucleus, the
reaction being written as 238U (n, n γ) 238U.
NUCLEAR FISSION PROCESS
• The process in which heavy nucleus is split when it is bombarded by
certain particles.
• Such reaction is possible with heavy nuclei such as 233
92𝑈,
235
92𝑈 and 239
94𝑃𝑢.
• The fission may be caused by bombarding with high energy particles such as
protons, X-rays and neutrons, the latter are most suited for fission.
• The main advantage of neutrons is that they are neutral (having no charge) and
therefore they can make their way through the shells of electrons and then
through the nucleus at low energy.
• This is the practical method used in all modern fission reactors.
• In 1939, Hahn and Stassmann discovered that a heavy atomic nucleus as or
uranium – 235 upon bombardment by a neutron splits apart into two or more
nuclei.
• U-235 first absorbs a neutron to form an unstable compound nucleus.
• The excited compound nucleus then divides into two daughter
nuclei* with the release of neutrons and large amount of energy.
• The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei is
termed nuclear fission.
• The process of fission is always accompanied by the ejection of two or
more neutrons and liberation of vast energy.
• A given large nucleus can fission in many ways forming a variety of
products.
• Thus the fission of U-235 occurs in about 35 ways. Two of these are
given below in the form of equations.
139
• 233
92 𝑈 + 1
0 𝑛 56 𝐵𝑎 + 94
36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 1
0𝑛 + energy
 128
• 233
92 𝑈 + 1
0 𝑛 106
42 𝑀𝑜 + 50 𝑆𝑛 + 2 1
0𝑛 + energy
• In these fission reactions, the mass of the products is less than that of
the reactant.
• A loss of about 0.2 amu per uranium atom occurs.
• This mass is converted into a fantastic quantity of energy (0.2 x 931.5
i.e. 187MeV).
• Generally it is assumed that 1 fission of 235
92𝑈 causes a release of 200
MeV of energy.
• 200 MeV = 200 x 1.6 x 10-13 = 3.2 x 10-11 joules (or watt-seconds).
• Thus 1 watt (or 1 J/s) requires (1/(3.2 x 10-11) or 3.1 x 1010 fissions per
second.
• If all the atoms of 1 kg of pure 233 23
92𝑈(containing 25.64 x 10 atoms)
were fissioned, the energy released would be equivalent to that
contained in 3 x 106 kg of coal with a calorific value of 6,000 Kcal/kg.
• Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of 235 92𝑈.
• If fission efficiency is 50% (i.e., only half of the total atoms take part in
fission) fission of 1 kg of natural uranium would give energy
equivalent to (0.7/100) x 3 x 106 x 0.5 or 10,500 kg of coal.
• Characteristics of nuclear fission may be summed up as below.
• (i). Upon capturing a neutron, a heavy nucleus cleaves into two or
more nuclei.
• (ii). Two or more neutrons are produced by fission of each nucleus.
• (iii). Vast quantities of energy (3 million times of that produced by
equivalent amount of coal) are produced as a result of conversion of
small mass into energy.
Nuclear Chain Reaction
• U-235 nucleus when hit by a neutron undergoes the reaction.
139
• 235
92 𝑈 + 1
0 𝑛 56 𝐵𝑎 + 94
36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 1
0𝑛 + energy
• Each of the three neutrons produced in the reaction strikes another
U-235 nucleus, thus causing nine subsequent reactions.
• These nine reactions, in turn, further give rise to twenty seven
reactions.
• This process of propagation of the reaction by multiplication in threes
at each fission is referred to as a chain reaction.
• Heavy unstable isotopes, exhibit a chain reaction by release of two or
three neutrons at each fission.
• Chain reaction may be defined as a fission reaction where the
neutrons from a previous step continue to propagate and repeat the
reaction.
• A chain reaction continues till most of the original nuclei in the given
sample are fissioned.
• It may be noted that all the neutrons released in the reaction are not
used up in propagating the chain reaction.
• Some of these are lost to the surroundings.
• Thus, for a chain reaction to occur, the sample of the fissionable
material should be large enough to capture the neutron internally.
• If the sample is too small, most neutrons will escape from its surface,
thereby breaking the chain.
• The minimum mass of fissionable material required to sustain a chain
reaction is called the critical mass.
• The critical mass varies for each reaction.
• For U-235 fission reaction it is about 10 kg.
• A single fission reaction also produces a large amount of energy.
• A chain reaction that consists of innumerable fission reactions will,
therefore, generate many times greater energy.
Nuclear Fuels
• The fuels mainly used are natural uranium (U-235), enriched uranium,
plutonium (secondary fuel) and U-233 (secondary fuel available from
breeder reactor).
• Natural uranium is the parent material.
• The materials U-235, U-233 and Pu-239 are called fissionable
materials.
• The fissionable nuclear fuel occurring in nature is uranium of which
99.3% is a 238
92 𝑈 and 0.7% is 235
92 𝑈 and 234
92𝑈 is only a trace.
• Out of these isotopes only 235 92𝑈 will fission in a chain reaction.
• The other two fissionable materials ( 239 94 𝑃𝑢 and 233
92𝑈) may be
produced artificially from 23892 𝑈 and 232
90𝑇ℎ, which occur in nature and
are called fertile materials.
• Out of the three fissionable materials, U-235 has some advantage
over the other two due to its higher fission percentage.
• Fissionable materials 23992 𝑃𝑢 and 233
92𝑈 are formed in the nuclear
reactors during fission process from 238
92 𝑈 and 232
90𝑇ℎ respectively due
to absorption of neutrons without fission.
• 238
92 𝑈 + 1
0 𝑛 239
92𝑈 + γ
• 239
92 𝑈 239
93 𝑁𝑝 + 0
−1𝑒
• 239
93 𝑁𝑝 239
94 𝑃𝑢 + 0
−1𝑒
• The above process is called conversion.
• Absorption of a neutron by U-238 produces U-239, which is unstable
with half-life period of 23 minutes and decays into neptunium with
emission of an electron.
 239
• 93𝑁𝑝 which has a half-life period of 2.3 days is likewise transformed
into Pu-239 which is long lived fissionable isotope of plutonium.
• U-233 is produced in the following manner.
• 232
90 𝑇ℎ + 1
0 𝑛 233
90𝑇ℎ + γ
• 233
90 𝑇ℎ 233
91 𝑃𝑎 + 0
−1𝑒 (23.3 minutes)
• 233
91 𝑃𝑎 233
92 𝑈 + 0
−1𝑒 (27.4 days)
• The above process is called breeding.
Nuclear Power Plant and Layout
• The concepts of nuclear power generation are much similar to that of
conventional steam power generation.
• The difference lies only in the steam generation part i.e., coal or oil
burning furnace and the boiler are replaced by nuclear reactor and
heat exchanger.
• A nuclear power plant consists of a nuclear reactor (for heat
generation), heat exchanger (for converting water into steam by using
the heat generated in nuclear reactor), steam turbine, alternator,
condenser, etc.
• As in a conventional steam power plant, water for raising steam forms
a closed feed system.
• The reactor and the cooling circuit have to be shielded to eliminate
radiation hazards.
• The tremendous amount of heat energy produced in breaking of
atoms of uranium or other similar metals of large atomic weight into
metals of lower atomic weight by fission process in an atomic reactor
is extracted by pumping fluid or molten metal like liquid sodium or
gas through the pile.
• The heated metal or gas is then allowed to exchange its heat to the
heat exchanger by circulation.
• In heat exchanger the gas is heated or steam is generated, which are
utilized to drive gas turbine or steam turbine coupled to an alternator
thereby, generating electrical energy.
• While deciding the layout of a nuclear power plant due consideration
should be given to safety, operating convenience and capital
economy.
• One of the important operational areas in a reactor building is the charge
hall which is used for the refueling operation.
• Charge hall is located directly over the reactor core.
• A main control room is provided in central location and consists of all the
necessary equipment for controlling normal and emergency operation of
the reactors as well as controls of boilers and turbo-alternators.
• All other ancillary rooms such as charge room, maintenance room, store,
switchyard, railway siding, machine shop, instrument shop, office etc are
suitably located for convenient operation.
Nuclear Reactor – Main parts and their functions
• Reactor is that part of nuclear power plant where nuclear fuel is subjected
to nuclear fission and the energy released in the process is utilized to heat
the coolant which may in turn generate steam or be used in a gas turbine.
• The main function of the reactor is to control the emission and absorption
of neutrons.
• The neutrons emitted as a result of chain reaction are accounted in the
following ways.
• (i). Non-fission absorption by control rod materials, moderator material,
fission fragments and impurities.
• (ii). Non-fission absorption by U-238 present in natural uranium to form
fissionable Pu-239.
• (iii). Fission absorption by U-235, Pu-239 and U-233.
• (iv). Escape from the fissionable material.
 Reactor Core:
• Contains fuel rods made of fissile material.
• They may be diluted with non-fissionable material for better control of
the reaction or to reduce the damage from fission product poisoning.
• As the uranium gets oxidized rapidly, the fuel rods should be clad with
aluminium, stainless steel or zirconium.
• The size of core, just sufficient to maintain a chain reaction is the “critical
size”.
• It can be brought down by using enriched uranium as fuel.
 Moderator:
• Neutrons produced by the fission process are ejected from the nucleus
at a very high velocity of about 1.5 x 107 m/s and therefore, have a very
large kinetic energy and are termed as fast neutrons.
• The elements which can undergo a fission reaction with fast neutrons
are U-233, U-235 and Pu-239.
• Natural uranium contains only 0.7% U-235.
• Fast neutrons are slowed down by elastic scattering process and chain
reaction can still occur.
• But during this process, there is possibility of their getting absorbed by
U-238 and the chain reaction may not be maintained.
• If the proportion of U-235 in the metal is increased to more than 10%,
the above absorption effect can be overcome and a chain reaction is
possible.
• This occurs in fast reactors but the enriching process is expensive.
• For more effective use in nuclear reactor, it is desirable in a gas at NTP
(i.e. to a speed of about 2.2 x 103 m/s).
• Such neutrons are known as slow or thermal neutrons.
• The absorption properties of U-238 are very much reduced with thermal
neutrons.
• Thus, if natural uranium is bombarded by thermal or slow neutrons, the
chain reaction can be maintained.
• This is accomplished with the help of ‘moderator’ which is mixed with
the fissile material in a suitable manner.
• Thus, the purpose of moderator material in the reactor core is to
moderate, or reduce the neutron speeds to a value that increases the
probability of fission occurrence.
• The fast neutrons collide with the nuclei of moderator material, loose
their energy and get slowed down.
• As per simple laws of mechanics, if a neutron collides with a nucleus of
equal mass it will loose all its energy whereas if it collides with a much
heavier nucleus it will loose very little energy.
• Thus it is evident that only elements at the top of periodic table or
compounds with small molecular weight are suitable as moderator
materials.
• Such elements are: Hydrogen, Deuterium, Helium, Lithium, Berylium,
Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen.
• The properties of good moderator are that it should have high scattering
cross-section and low neutron absorption cross-section.
• Out of the elements having small atomic mass, gases like oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen and deuterium are unsuitable owing to their low
density and the consequent small number of collisions.
• Helium and berylium are costly.
• Boron and lithium have high absorption cross-section.
• Carbon is cheap and satisfactory and can be readily obtained in desired
purity.
• Carbon is used in most of the large power producing reactors.
• Heavy water is an ideal moderating material and is used in many
reactors inspite of its heavy cost.
• Ordinary water is cheap but it has high neutron absorption and can be
used only with enriched uranium.
• The moderator and the fuel may be intimately mixed or the fuel may
be scattered throughout the moderator in discrete lumps.
• These two arrangements are called as homogenous and
heterogeneous arrangements respectively.
Control Rods:
• Control rods are meant for controlling the rate of fission of U-235.
• These are made of boron-10, cadmium or hafnium, that absorb some of
the slowed neutrons.
• In a reactor, nuclear chain reaction has to be initiated when started from
cold and the chain reaction is to be maintained at a steady value during
the operation of reactor.
• Also the reactor must be able to shut-down automatically under
emergency conditions.
• All this requires a control of reactor so as to prevent the melting of fuel
roads, disintegration of coolant and destruction of reactor as the
amount of energy released is enormous.
• The control rods are inserted into the reactor core from the top of the
reactor vessel.
• These rods regulate the fissioning in the reactor by absorbing the
excess neutrons.
• These rods can be moved in and out of the holes in the reactor core
assembly.
• If the fissioning rate of the chain reaction is to be increased, the
control rods are moved out slightly so that they absorb less number
of neutrons and vice-versa.
Coolant:
• Coolant is a medium through which the heat generated in the reactor
is transferred to the heat exchanger for further utilization in power
generation.
• Sometimes when water is used as a coolant it takes up heat and gets
converted into steam in the reactor which is directly used for driving
steam turbines.
• Coolant flows through and around the reactor core.
• It performs the additional function of keeping the interior of reactor
at the desired temperature.
• Sometimes, the same medium is used as the coolant as well as the
moderator though separate materials are used more commonly.
• A good coolant should not absorb neutrons, should be non-oxidizing,
non-toxic and non-corrosive and have high chemical and radiation
stability and good heat transfer capability.
• Air, helium, hydrogen and CO2 amongst the gases.
• Light and heavy water amongst the liquids.
• The molten sodium and lithium amongst the metals are the materials
used as coolants.
• Ordinary water is used both as coolant and moderator in boiling water
reactors.
• Pressurized water is used both as coolant and moderator in pressurized
water reactors.
• Water has good thermal capacity per unit volume and is, therefore, a
good heat transport medium.
• In reactors using water as coolant, the power consumption of circulating
pump is low.
• Heavy water (D20) is even more efficient than light water.
• Liquid metals (e.g. sodium and potassium) are used as coolant in fast
reactors which have large heat release from a small core.
• They have high heat transfer capability and low vapour pressure.
• Reactors employing liquid metal coolants can operate at high
temperature.
• They are employed in liquid metal fuelled reactors.
• Carbon dioxide is colourless and odourless and has low neutron
absorption cross-section.
• When dry, it does not react with mild steel of the pressure vessel and
the supports of the core.
• However, it does not react with graphite and therefore, special steps
are to be taken in the design of the reactor so as to inhibit the
reaction between CO2 and graphite.
• It is used in Magnox and advanced gas cooled reactors.
 Reflector:
• This completely surrounds the reactor core within the thermal shielding
arrangement and bounces back most of the neutrons that escape from
the fuel core.
• This conserves the nuclear fuel, as the low speed neutrons thus
returned are useful in continuing the chain reaction.
• The reflector gets heated due to collision of neutrons with its atom,
therefore, its cooling is essential.
• The reflector should have good neutron scattering properties and
preferably a small tendency to absorb neutrons.
• It is often a moderating material and sometime the same material is
used both for moderator and reflector.
Thermal Shielding
• The shielding is usually constructed from iron and help in giving
protection from the deadly α and β particle radiations and γ – rays as
well as neutrons given off by the process of fission with in the reactor.
• In this manner it gets heated and prevents the reactor wall from getting
heated.
• Coolant flows over the shielding to take away the heat.
Reactor Vessel:
• The reactor core, reflector and thermal shielding are all enclosed in the
main body of the reactor and is called the reactor vessel or tank.
• It is a strong walled container and provides the entrance and exit for the
coolant and also the passages for its flow through and around the
reactor core.
• There are holes at the top to allow the control rods to pass through
them.
• The reactor core (fuel and moderator assembly) is usually placed at the
bottom of the vessel.
• The reactor vessel has to withstand high pressures (upto 21 Mpa).
Biological Shield:
• The whole of the reactor is enclosed in a biological shield to prevent
the escape or leak away of the fast neutrons, slow neutrons, β-
particles and γ-rays as these radiations are very harmful for living
organisms.
• Lead iron or dense concrete shields are used for this purpose.
Reactor Control:
• All power plant reactors are provided with the means to regulate the
fission process so that energy is generated according t the load
requirements and in an emergency the reactor can be quickly shut
down.
• Fission control is affected by regulating the neutron population or flux as
per power requirement by providing for absorption of excess neutrons
through such substances which have high neutron absorption coefficient
and these are called the poisons.
• Cadmium and carbon are two such substances which are inserted with
the help of adjustable control rod.
• The position of the control rods is automatically regulated by electro-
chemical and electronic sensing objects which measure the neutron flux
density in the reactor and actuate the control rods to regulate power
generation.
• All the neutrons released in the fission reaction are not used up in
propagating the chain reaction but some of these are lost to the
surroundings.
• For maintaining chain reaction, it is therefore, essential that the
number of neutrons after the fission should be slightly more than the
number before it to allow for the escape or leak of neutrons from the
reactor core.
• The ratio is known as multiplication factor.
• The multiplication factor is K for any reactor is defined as
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• K=
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Unity value of K indicates that the chain reaction will continue at a
steady state (critical).
• If K is less than unity, the chain reaction will stop and the system is
called subcritical.
• While for K exceeding unity, the chain reaction will build-up and the
system is called super-critical.
• The desirable requirement of power reactors is that the system
should be critical (i.e., K=1).
• The critical size of a thermal reactor is one that produces neutrons
just enough to balance those lost and absorbed and at the same time
maintains the chain reaction.
• For reactor control, the value of K is to be controlled.
• At the time of starting of reactor, value of K is kept above unity so as
to build-up the chain reaction to increase the power level.
• Once the required power level has been attained, K is reduced to
unity and is kept at this value as long as the output rate is to be
maintained.
• For decreasing the output (power level), K is reduced to slightly less
than unity till the required power level is attained and at this point K
is brought back to unity and maintained.
• Similarly for shutting down the reactor, K is reduced below unity, the
chain reaction will stop.