University of Technology, Jamaica

School of Engineering

B.Eng. 3: Electrical Machines & Power

Systems
(ELE 3010)

Dr. Milton T. Richardson

Email: mrichardson@utech.edu.jm
Ext: 2230
March 12, 2018
1
 Overview of Direct Current
Machines
• Direct-current (DC) machines are divided into dc generators
and dc motors.
• DC generators are not as common as they used to be, because
direct current, when required, is mainly produced by
electronic rectifiers.
• While dc motors are widely usedin many applications such as
in electric vehicles to extend their range and reduce vehicle
weight, in steel and aluminum rolling mills, traction motors,
electric trains, overhead cranes, control devices, etc

2
 DC Generator
• A dc generator is a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy (dc
voltage and current) by using the principle of
magnetic induction.

3
 DC Motor
• DC motors are
everywhere! In a
house, almost every
mechanical movement
that you see around
you is caused by an DC
(direct current) motor.

• An dc motor is a
machine that converts
electrical energy into
mechanical energy by
supplying a dc power 4

(voltage and current).

 Construction
• Major parts are rotor (armature) and stator
(field).

5
 ARMATURE
• More loops of wire = higher rectified voltage
• In practical, loops are generally placed in slots of an iron core
• The iron acts as a magnetic conductor by providing a low-reluctance path
for magnetic lines of flux to increase the inductance of the loops and provide
a higher induced voltage. The commutator is connected to the slotted iron
core. The entire assembly of iron core, commutator, and windings is called
the armature. The windings of armatures are connected in different ways
depending on the requirements of the machine.

6
Loops of wire are wound around slot in a metal core DC machine armature
 Significant Features of DC Machines

• Conventional DC generators are being replaced by the

solid state rectifiers where ac supply is available.
• The same is not true for dc motors because of
– Constant mechanical power output or constant torque
– Rapid acceleration or deceleration
– Responsiveness to feedback signals
• 1W to 10,000 hp
• Applications – in electric vehicles to extend their range
and reduce vehicle weight, in steel and aluminum rolling
mills, traction motors, electric trains, overhead cranes,
control devices, etc.

7
ARMATURE WINDINGS

8
 Elements of an armature windings

A turn – two conductors connected to an end by an end connector

9
 Elements of an armature windings

A coil – several turns connected in series

10
 Elements of an armature windings

A winding – several coils connected in series

11
ARMATURE WINDINGS (Cont)

12
Lap Winding:

 are used in machines designed for low voltage and high current
armatures are constructed with large wire because of high current
Eg: - are used is in the starter motor of almost all automobiles
The windings of a lap wound armature are connected in parallel. This
permits the current capacity of each winding to be added and provides a
higher operating current.
No of parallel path, A=P ; P = no. of poles
Wave winding:

 are used in machines designed for high voltage and low current

 their windings connected in series

 When the windings are connected in series, the voltage of each winding
adds, but the current capacity remains the same
 are used is in the small generator.

 No of parallel path, A=2,

 FIELD WINDINGS
• Most DC machines use wound
electromagnets to provide the magnetic
field.

• Two types of field windings are used :

– series field
– shunt field

17
DC Machine Construction

DC motor stator with poles visible.

18
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)

• Series field windings

– are so named because they are connected in series with the
armature
– are made with relatively few windings turns of very large wire and
have a very low resistance
– usually found in large horsepower machines wound with square
or rectangular wire. The use of square wire permits the windings to
be laid closer together, which increases the number of turns that
can be wound in a particular space
– Square and rectangular wire can also be made physically smaller
than round wire and still contain the same surface area

19
Square wire contains more
Square wire permits more turns than round wire in the same area
surface than round wire
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
• Shunt field windings
– is constructed with relatively many turns of
small wire, thus, it has a much higher
resistance than the series field.
– is intended to be connected in parallel with, or
shunt, the armature.
– high resistance is used to limit current flow
through the field.

20
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
• When a DC machine
uses both series and
shunt fields, each
pole piece will contain
both windings.

• The windings are

wound on the pole
pieces in such a
manner that when
current flows through
the winding it will Both series and shunt field windings are contained in each pole piece

produce alternate
magnetic polarities. S – series field
21
F – shunt field
DC Machines

22
 Magnetic Induction and the DC
Generator
• Faraday’s Law e = N dΦ / dt
– e = the induced voltage in volts (V)
– N = the number of series-connected turns of wire in
turns (t)
– dΦ/dt = rate of change in flux in Webers/second
(Wb/s)
• e=BLv
– B = the flux density in teslas (T)
– L = the length of the conductor that is in the
magnetic field in meters (m)
– v = the relative velocity between the wire and the
23
flux, in meters/second (m/s)
Magnetic induction in a wire
moving in a field.

24
Right-hand rule for magnetic
induction.

25
Wire loop rotating in a magnetic
field.

26
AC generator with slip rings and
brushes.

27
DC generator with commutator and
brushes.

28
DC generator output waveform.

29
DC generator with field control.

30
DC generator four-pole field.

31
DC generator rotor with two
coils.

32
Coil and output waveforms for a
two-winding rotor.

33
Rotor with several rotor coils and
commutator segments.

34
 Shunt and Compound DC
Generator
• Shunt Generator Model
• Compound Generator Model
• Efficiency

35
DC shunt generator model.

36
More precise dc shunt generator
model.

37
Shunt dc generator with field
rheostat.

38
Separately excited shunt dc
generator.

39
 DC motor principles
• DC motors consist of rotor-mounted
windings (armature) and stationary
windings (field poles). In all DC
motors, except permanent magnet
motors, current must be conducted to
the armature windings by passing
current through carbon brushes that
slide over a set of copper surfaces
called a commutator, which is
mounted on the rotor.

Parts of an electric motor

 The commutator bars are soldered to armature coils. The brush/commutator

combination makes a sliding switch that energizes particular portions of the
armature, based on the position of the rotor. This process creates north and
south magnetic poles on the rotor that are attracted to or repelled by north
and south poles on the stator, which are formed by passing direct current
40 that
through the field windings. It's this magnetic attraction and repulsion
causes the rotor to rotate.
 The Advantages
• The greatest advantage of DC motors may be speed
control. Since speed is directly proportional to armature
voltage and inversely proportional to the magnetic flux
produced by the poles, adjusting the armature voltage
and/or the field current will change the rotor speed.

• Today, adjustable frequency drives can provide precise

speed control for AC motors, but they do so at the
expense of power quality, as the solid-state switching
devices in the drives produce a rich harmonic spectrum.
The DC motor has no adverse effects on power quality.

41
 The drawbacks
• Power supply, initial cost, and maintenance
requirements are the negatives associated with DC
motors
• Rectification must be provided for any DC motors
supplied from the grid. It can also cause power quality
problems.
• The construction of a DC motor is considerably more
complicated and expensive than that of an AC motor,
primarily due to the commutator, brushes, and armature
windings. An induction motor requires no commutator or
brushes, and most use cast squirrel-cage rotor bars
instead of true windings — two huge simplifications.

42
 Major types of dc motors

• Self excited dc motor

– Series dc motor
– Shunt dc motor
– Compound dc motor
• Separately excited dc motor
• Permanent magnet dc motor
43
 Series motors
• Series motors connect
the field windings in
Ra Rf
series with the ia
armature.
• Series motors lack good
speed regulation, but M Ea VT (dc
are well-suited for high-
supply)
torque loads like power
tools and automobile
starters because of their
high torque production VT  Ea  ia ( Ra  R f )
and compact size.
note : ia  iL
Ea  K1K 2 I a 44
 Series Motor Power Flow
Diagram

Pcf=ia2Rf P

Pin= VTiL Pm Pout

Pca=ia2Ra
 60 P 
   
P is normally given  2 N 
 60 Po 
Pin = Pout + total losses for output / load torque , o   
 2 N 
Where,  60 Pm 
for mechanical torque, m   
Pca =armature copper loss  2 N 
Pcf =field copper loss P 
Efficiency,    out 
P=stray, mech etc  Pin  45
Pm= Ea ia
 Losses in a DC Motor
• The power input to a dc motor is electrical and the power output is
mechanical.
• The difference between the power input and the power output is the
power loss.
• When the power is supplied to a motor, a significant portion of that
power is dissipated by the resistances of the armature and the field
windings as copper loss.
• The remainder power (the developed power) is converted by the
motor into mechanical power.
• A part of the developed power is consumed by the rotational loss.
• The difference is the net mechanical power available at the shaft of
the motor.
• A typical power-flow diagram of a dc motor is shown in Figure 6.3.

46
 Series Motor (cont)
• Example 1:
A dc machine in Figure 1 is
consumed a 6.5kW when the
12.5 A of armature current is
passing thru the armature and Ra Rf
field resistance of 3.3 and 2.0 ia
respectively. Assume stray
losses of 1.2kW. Calculate
a) terminal voltage, VT M Ea VT (dc
b) back emf, Ea supply)
c) net torque if the speed is at
3560rpm
d) efficiency of the machine Figure 1
[520V, 453.75V, 12N-m, 68.8%]

47
 Series Motor (cont)
• Example 2:
A 600V 150-hp dc machine in
Figure 2 operates at its full rated
load at 600rpm. The armature
and field resistance are 0.12
and 0.04 respectively. The Ra Rf
machine draws 200A at full load. ia
Assume stray losses 1700W.
Determine
a) the armature back emf at full
load, Ea M Ea VT (dc
b) developed/mechanical power supply)

and developed/mechanical
torque
c) assume that a change in load Figure 2
results in the line current
dropping to 150A. Find the new
speed in rpm and new
developed torque. {Hint:
Ea=K1K2ia} 48
[568V, 113.6kW, 1808Nm, 811.27rpm, 1017Nm]
 Shunt motors
• Shunt motors use high-
resistance field windings
connected in parallel with the
armature. ia Ra iL
• Varying the field resistance
changes the motor speed.
if
• Shunt motors are prone to
armature reaction, a
distortion and weakening of
Rf
the flux generated by the M Ea VT (dc

poles that results in supply)

commutation problems
evidenced by sparking at the
brushes.
• Installing additional poles,
called interpoles, on the
stator between the main VT  Ea  ia ( Ra )
poles wired in series with the note : iL  ia  i f
armature reduces armature
reaction. VT  i f R f 49
 Armature Reaction

If a load is connected to the terminals of the dc

machine, a current will flow in its armature windings.
This current flow will produce a magnetic field of its
own, which will distort the original magnetic field from
the machine’s field poles. This distortion of the magnetic
flux in a machine as the load is increased is called the
armature reaction.

50
 Shunt Motor (power flow
diagram)

Pcf=if2Rf P
Pin=VTiL Pm Pout

Pca=ia2Ra
 60 P 
   
P is normally given  2 N 
 60 Po 
Pin = Pout + total losses for output / load torque , o   
 2 N 
Where,  60 Pm 
for mechanical torque, m   
Pca =armature copper loss  2 N 
Pcf =field copper loss P 
Efficiency,    out 
P=stray, mech etc  Pin  51
Pm= Ea ia
 Shunt Motor
• Example :
– A voltage of 230V is applied to armature of a
machines results in a full load armature
currents of 205A. Assume that armature
resistance is 0.2. Find the back emf, net
power and torque by assuming the rotational
losses are 1445W at full load speed of
1750rpm.

[189V, 37.3kW, 203.5Nm]

52
 Compound motors

• the concept of
the series and
ia Ra Rf2 iL
shunt designs
are combined. if

VT  Ea  ia ( Ra  R f 2 ) M Ea Rf1 VT (dc
supply)

note : iL  ia  i f
VT  i f R f 1
53
 Compound motor (power flow
diagram)
Pca=ia2Ra Pcf2=ia2Rf2 P

Pin=VTiL Pm Pout

Pcf1=if2Rf1
 60 P 
   
P is normally given  2 N 
 60 Po 
Pin = Pout + total losses for output / load torque , o   
 2 N 
Where,  60 Pm 
for mechanical torque, m   
Pca =armature copper loss  2 N 
Pcf =field copper loss P 
Efficiency,    out 
P=stray, mech etc  Pin  54
Pm= Ea ia
 Separately Excited Motor
• There is no direct connection between the
armature and field winding resistance

• DC field current is supplied by an

independent source
– (such as battery or another generator or prime
mover called an exciter)

55
Separately Excited Motor (Cont)

Circuit analysis:
Rf Ra La
2 pnZ If ia

Ea   K f if n  K f n
60C
Vf Lf M Ea VT

Where p= no of pole pair

n= speed (rpm)
Z=no of conductor
=Flux per pole (Wb)
C= no of current/parallel path KVL:
=2p (lap winding) Vf  if Rf
=2 (wave winding)

VT  Ea  ia Ra
note : ia  iL
56
 Permanent Magnet motors

• PMDC is a dc motor whose poles are made

of permanent magnets.
• Do not require external field circuit, no
copper losses
• No field winding, size smaller than other
types dc motors
• Disadvantage: cannot produce high flux
density, lower induce voltage
57
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor

• Torque –speed characteristic for shunt and

separately excited dc motor
m  VK f I f 
E I  c   
Developed torque,   a a 
    2Ra 
E I 
   a a  Starting
 2n  torque
 K f 2 I f 2n 
 V  Ea  Ea  slope   
     2Ra 
 Ra  2n    
same as separately excited,
 VK f I f   K f I f n 
2 2

    
 2Ra   2Ra 
=0
n=0 n n58NL n
 Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor
• By referring to the Torque –speed characteristic for shunt and
separately excited dc motor

 VK f I f   K f I f n 
2 2

    
 2Ra   2Ra 
• note that, there are three variables that can influence the speed of
the motor,
V
If Variables
Ra

• Thus, there are three methods of controlling the speed of the

shunt and separately excited dc motor,
i. Armature terminal – voltage speed control
ii. Field speed control
iii. Armature resistance speed control 59
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor
i. Armature resistance speed control
- Speed may be controlled by changing Ra
- The total resistance of armature may be varied by
means of a rheostat in series with the armature
- The armature speed control rheostat also serves as
a starting resistor.
- From -n characteristic,

 VK f I f 
 start  c   
 2Ra 
 K f 2 I f 2n  Will be changed
slope   
 2Ra 
  60
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor

• Torque –speed characteristic

m

Ra1
Ra1 < Ra2 < Ra3
Ra2

Ra3


n3 n2 n1 nNL n
61
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor
• Advantages armature resistance speed control:
i. Starting and speed control functions may be combined in one
rheostat
ii. The speed range begins at zero speed
iii. The cost is much less than other system that permit control
down to zero speed
iv. Simple method

• Disadvantages armature resistance speed control :

i. Introduce more power loss in rheostat
ii. Speed regulation is poor (S.R difference nLoaded & nno loaded)
iii. Low efficiency due to rheostat

62
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor

ii. Field Speed Control

- Rheostat in series with field winding (shunt or
separately ect.)
- If field current, If is varied, hence flux is also varied
- Not suitable for series field
- Refer to -n characteristic,
- Slope and nNL will be changed

63
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor

• Torque –speed characteristic

m

If1 < If2 < If3

1 < 2 < 3

n1 n 2 n3 nNL2 nNL3 n
Base speed 64
nNL1
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor
• Advantages field speed control:
i. Allows for controlling at or above the base speed
ii. The cost of the rheostat is cheaper because If is
small value

• Disadvantages field speed control :

i. Speed regulation is poor (S.R difference nLoaded &
nno loaded)
ii. At high speed, flux is small, thus causes the speed
of the machines becomes unstable
iii. At high speed also, the machines is unstable 65
mechanically, thus there is an upper speed limit
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor

iii. Armature terminal – voltage speed control

- Use power electronics controller
- AC supply rectifier
- DC supply chopper
- Supply voltage to the armature is controlled
- Constant speed regulation
- From -n characteristic,
- C and nNL will be change
- Slope constant

66
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor

• Torque –speed characteristic

m

V3 < V2 < V1

n3 n2 n1 nNL2 nNL1 n 67
nNL3
Speed Control for shunt motor and
separately excited dc motor

• Advantages armature terminal voltage speed

control:
i. Does not change the speed regulation
ii. Speed is easily controlled from zero to maximum
safe speed

• Disadvantages armature terminal voltage

speed control :
i. Cost is higher because of using power electronic
68
controller
Comparison between the Shunt and Series Connected DC Machines

69
 Dynamic Braking of DC Motors
• In dynamic braking the armature is connected
to a resistive load after removing power, the
energy stored in the rotor in the form of angular
momentum will be transferred to the resistive
load, rapidly decreasing the rotor speed.
• When plugging a motor, the motor is
momentarily reconnected in such a way as to
reverse the direction of rotation. This can cause
excessive line currents and excessive torque on
the rotor.
70
 Types of DC Machines

Both the armature and field circuits carry direct current in the case
of a DC machine.

Types:
Self-excited DC machine: when a machine supplies its own
excitation of the field windings. In this machine, residual
magnetism must be present in the ferromagnetic circuit of the
machine in order to start the self-excitation process.
Separately-excited DC machine: The field windings may be
separately excited from an eternal DC source.
Shunt Machine: armature and field circuits are connected in
parallel. Shunt generator can be separately-excited or self-excited.
Series Machine: armature and field circuits are connected in series.
71
 Separately-Excited and Self-Excited DC Generators

If
IL
+ +
If IL
+ Ra
Ra
DC Supply Rf Rf Vt
+ Vt
- Ea Ea Ia
- -

Separately-Excited Self-Excited

72
 Example 1

A 100-kW, 250-V DC shunt generator has an

armature resistance of 0.05  and field circuit
resistance of 60 . With the generator operating at
rated voltage, determine the induced voltage at (a) full
load, and (b) half-full load.

73
 Solution to Example 1

(a) At full load,

Vt=Ea-IaRa
If=250/60=4.17 A
IL_FL=100,000/250=400 A
Ia=IL_FL+If=400+4.17=404.17 A
Ea=Vt+IaRa=250+404.17*0.05=270.2 V

(b) At half load,

If=250/60=4.17 A
IL_HL=50,000/250=200 A
Ia=IL_HL+If=200+4.17=204.17 A
Ea=Vt+IaRa=250+204.17*0.05=260.2 V

74
 DC Generator Characteristics

In general, three characteristics specify the steady-state

performance of a DC generators:

1. Open-circuit characteristics: generated voltage versus field

current at constant speed.
2. External characteristic: terminal voltage versus load current
at constant speed.
3. Load characteristic: terminal voltage versus field current at
constant armature current and speed.

75
 DC Generator Characteristics

The terminal voltage of a dc

generator is given by

Vt  Ea  I a Ra
 
 f I f , m  Armature reaction drop 
 I a Ra

Open-circuit and load characteristics 76

 DC Generator Characteristics

It can be seen from the external

characteristics that the terminal
voltage falls slightly as the load
current increases. Voltage regulation
is defined as the percentage change
in terminal voltage when full load is
removed, so that from the external
characteristics,

E  Vt
External characteristics
Voltage regulation  a  100
Vt

77
 Self-Excited DC Shunt Generator

Maximum permissible value of the field

resistance if the terminal voltage has to build up.

Schematic diagram of connection

Open-circuit characteristic

78
 Speed Control in Shunt DC Motors
Field Control:
Ra and Vt are kept constant, field rheostat is varied to
change the field current.
Vt Ra
m  
 2
Te
KfIf KfIf

For no-load condition, Te=0. So, no-load speed varies

inversely with the field current.

Speed control from zero to base speed is usually

obtained by armature voltage control. Speed control
beyond the base speed is obtained by decreasing the field
current. If armature current is not to exceed its rated
value (heating limit), speed control beyond the base
speed is restricted to constant power, known as constant
power application.

P  Vt I a  const  Ea I a  Te m
Ea I a const .
Te  
m m
79
 DC Motor Characteristics
• DC motor characteristics
– many forms – each with slightly different characteristics
– again can be permanent magnet, or series-wound, shunt-wound
or compound wound
– figure below shows a shunt-wound DC motor

80
 Power Division in DC Machines
Arm. copper loss
Ia2Ra+brush contact loss

Input from Elec-magnetic Arm. terminal Output power

DC Generator prime-mover power = Vta Ia
Power =EaIa = V t IL

No-load rotational loss (friction Series field loss IL2Rs

+windage+core)+stray load loss +shunt field loss If2Rf

Arm. copper loss

Ia2Ra+brush contact loss

Input power from Arm. terminal Elec-magnetic Output available

DC Motor mains =Vt IL power = Vta Ia Power =EaIa at the shaft

Series field loss IL2Rs No-load rotational loss (friction

+shunt field loss If2Rf +windage+core)+stray load loss
81
 Efficiency

Power Output

Power Input
Power Input  Losses

Power Input
Losses
 1
Power Input

The losses are made up of rotational losses (3-15%), armature

circuit copper losses (3-6%), and shunt field copper loss (1-5%).
The voltage drop between the brush and commutator is 2V and
the brush contact loss is therefore calculated as 2Ia.

82
83
84
85
 Measure of Motor Output
• Output is measure in horsepower (hp).
• 1 hp = power to lift 550 pounds one foot
in one second.
1 hp = 746 Watts

- For residential uses motors < 1 hp

- Motors < 1hp are called
Fractional Horsepower Motors

* For large industrial applications motors with multiple

horsepower ratings are used

86
DC Machines Formulas

87
 Thank you
for Listening

88