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800g food
500ml bile
2000ml
1500ml gastric juice
pancr.juice
1500ml
8500ml
intest.secret intest. abs
350ml
colon abs
100ml water
50g solids
6
Nerves
• Enteric nervous system: the gut’s own
• Visceral plexuses within gut wall controlling the muscles,
glands and having sensory info
• Myenteric: in muscularis
• Submucosal
• 100 million neurons! (as many as the spinal cord)
• Autonomic input: speeds or slows the system
• Parasympathetic
• Stimulates digestive functions
• Sympathetic
• Inhibits digestion
• Largely automatic
8
The Mouth
12
• “Vermillion border” or red
border
• Between highly keratinized
skin of face and mucosa of
mouth
• Needs moisture
• Note frenulums (folds of
mucosa)
• Palate – roof of mouth
• Hard plate anteriorly
• Soft palate posterioly
• Uvula
13
Functions of the oral cavity:
• Chewing (mastication)
• Taste (gustation)
• Digestion
• Lubrication
• Swallowing
• Speech
• Protection from harmful ingested substances
The tongue
• Lingual glands:
• The body: mainly serous
• The base: mainly mucous
• The tip: are mixed
• Papillae:
• Anterior & lateral: fungiform & foliate
• The base: circumvalate
• Taste buds: several thousands in tongue and palate & epiglottis
Tongue
• Mostly muscles
• Grip and reposition food
• Forms “bolus” of food (lump)
• Help in swallowing
• Speech – help form some consonants
• Note frenulum on previous slide: can be too tight
• Taste buds contained by circumvallate and fungiform papillae
• Lingual tonsil – back of tongue
17
Tongue and taste
Nerves of the tongue
• Autonomic nerves:
• Sympathetic:
• Cell body in the gln.cervicale superior
• Stimulate a more transient effect
• Release noradrenalin -> vasoconstriction -> dry mouth when frightened
• Parasympathetic:
• Pregln.fibers in the branches of c.n. VII & IX
• Provide a stronger & long lasting stimulus
• Release: acetylcholine, subst.P, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
Salivary glands
(tuboalveolar glands)
+
Compound = duct branches
Tubo = tubes
# Alveolar = sacs
23
Teeth
• Called “dentition” (like dentist)
• Chewing: raising and lowering the mandible and moving it from side
to side while tongue positions food between teeth
24
Teeth are classified according to shape
and function
molar
26
Tooth structure
• Two main regions
A. Crown (exposed)
B. Root (in socket) A
C. Meet at neck
• Enamel C
• 99% calcium crystals
• Hardest substance in body
• Dentin – bulk of the tooth B
(bone-like but harder than
bone, with collagen and
mineral)
• Pulp cavity with vessels
and nerves
• Root canal: the part of the
pulp in the root
27
Tooth structure
• Cementum – bone layer of
tooth root A
• Attaches tooth to
periodontal ligament C
• Periodontal ligament
• Anchors tooth in boney
socket of the jaw B
• Three constrictor
muscles*
• Sequentially squeeze bolus
* of food into esophagus
• Are skeletal muscles
* • Voluntary action
• Vagus nerve (X)
31
OESOPHAGUS
• The upper esophageal sphincter (UES): (hypopharyngeal
sphinct/m.cricopharyngeus) thickening of circular skeletal muscle
• The lower esophageal sphincter (LES): the last 1-2 cm, not
anatomically distinguishable as a sphincter but the pressure is greater
than in the stomach
• A functional external sphincter provided by crural diaphragm, usually
the right crus
• Case: gastro esophageal reflux (GER)
Esophagus
• Continuation of pharynx in mid
neck
• Muscular tube collapsed when
lumen empty Esophagus___________
• Descends through thorax
• On anterior surface of vertebral
column
• Behind (posterior to) trachea
33
Esophagus continued
• Passes through “esophageal hiatus” in the diaphragm to enter
the abdomen
• Abdominal part only 2 cm long
• Joins stomach at cardiac orifice*
• Cardiac sphincter at cardiac orifice to prevent regurgitation (food
coming back up into esophagus)
• Gastroesophageal junction and GERD
___________________esophageal hiatus
(hiatus means opening)
35
Microscopic anatomy of esophagus
37
Chewing
• Elevation M, T, PM
• Depression PL, SH, IH
• Protrution M, PL, PM
• Retrution M, T
• Side-gliding M, T(c.l), P(i.l)
VENTRICULUS / GASTER (STOMACH)
46
Stomach
• Lies mostly in LUQ epigastrium
• But pain can be epigastric or
lower
• Just inferior to (below)
diaphragm
• Anterior (in front of) spleen and
pancreas
• Tucked under left lower margin
of liver dome
• Anchored at both ends but junction
mobile in between with
• Main regions in drawing to esophagus
contains
right-------------------------------- pyloric
• Capacity: 1.5 L food; max sphincter
capacity 4L (1 gallon) funnel shaped
47
48
Stomach Regions
• Cardiac region
• Fundus (dome shaped)
• Body
• Greater curvature
• Lesser curvature
• Pyloric region
dome
• Antrum
junction
• Canal with
• Sphincter esophagus
contains
pyloric
sphincter
funnel shaped
49
• Rugae: longitudinal folds on
internal surface (helps
distensibility)
• Muscularis: additional
innermost oblique layer
(along with circular and
longitudinal layers)
50
• Chief cells and parietal cells of gastric glands secrete
substances into the lumen of the stomach which combine to
make gastric juice
Gastric Motility
53
VOMITING (emesis)
Small intestine___________
60
• Small intestine has 3 subdivisions
Blood supply: superior
• Duodenum – 5% of length mesenteric artery;
• Jejunum – almost 40% Veins drain into hepatic
• Ileum – almost 60% portal vein
* 61
• Small intestine designed for absorption
• Huge surface area because of great length
• Structural modifications also increase absorptive area
• Circular folds (plicae circulares)
• Villi (fingerlike projections) 1 mm high – simple columnar epithelium: velvety
• Microvilli
Absorptivie
cell with
microvilli to
increase
surface area
* & many
mitochondria:
nutrient
uptake is
Lacteal*: network of blood energy-
demanding
and lymph capillaries
-Carbs and proteins into blood to liver
via hepatic portal vein
-Fat into lymph: fat-soluble toxins e.g.
pesticides circulate systemically before
going to liver for detoxification
62
• Intestinal crypts * (of Lieberkuhn) inbetween villi
• Cells here divide every 3-6 days to renew epithelium (most rapidly dividing cells of the body)
• Secrete watery intestinal juice which mixes with chyme (the paste that food becomes after
stomach churns it)
• Intestinal flora – the permanent normal bacteria
• Manufacture some vitamins, e.g. K, which get absorbed
-have many
Duodenal glands * *
mitochondri
a: nutrient
•Mucus to counteract acidity
from stomach uptake is
energy-
•Hormones: * demanding
-produce mucus
Cholecystokinin (stimulates GB to
release stored bile, also pancreas)
Secretin (stimulates pancreatic ducts 63
to release acid neutralizer)
Beda jejenum & Ileum
Jejenum : Ileum
1. Otot polos > tebal 1. Otot polos > tipis
2. Diameter > besar 2. Diameter > kecil
3. Plica sirkularis >besar, 3. Plica sirkularis longgar
>banyak, >rapat 4. Arcade a. Jejunalis bersusun2
4. Arcade a. Jejunalis hanya 1 dan kompleks
atau 2 tingkat 5. Vasa recta > pendek
5. Vasa recta lbh panjang 6. Plaques payeri khas
6. Plaques payeri tidak khas
Peristalsis
67
Large intestine
Digested residue reaches it
Main function: to absorb water and
electrolytes
Subdivisions
Cecum
Appendix
Colon
Rectum
Anal canal
68
1. Teniae coli (3 longitudinal muscle
strips)
Three special 2. Haustra (puckering into sacs)
features 3. Epiploic appendages (omental or
fat pouches)
3.
2.
1.
69
Colon has segments: ascending, transverse and descending colon; then sigmoid colon
Right angle turns: hepatic flexure* in RUQ and splenic flexure* in LUQ
*
*
Between
ileum and
cecum1st part S-shaped
Blind tube
Movement sluggish and weak except for a few “mass peristaltic movements” per
day to force feces toward rectum powerfully 70
Histology – large intestine
• No villi
• Fewer nutrients absorbed
• “Columnar cells” in pic =
absorptive cells
• Take in water and
electrolytes
• A lot of goblet cells for
mucus
• Lubricates stool
• More lymphoid tissue
• A lot of bacteria in stool
71
• Rectum
• In pelvis
• No teniae
• Strong longitudinal muscle
layer
• Has valves
• Anal canal
• Pectinate line*
• Inferior to it: sensitive to
pain *
• Hemorrhoids (enlarged veins)
• Superior to pectinate line:
internal *
• Inferior to pectinate line:
external
• Sphincters (close opening)
• Internal*
• smooth muscle
• involuntary *
• External*
• skeletal muscle
• voluntary
72
• Defecation
1. Triggered by stretching of wall,
mediated by spinal cord
parasympathetic reflex
2. Stimulates contraction of
smooth muscle in wall and
relaxation of internal anal
sphincter
3. If convenient to defecate
voluntary motor neurons
stimulate relaxation of
external anal sphincter
(aided by diaphragm and
abdominal wall muscles -called
Valsalva maneuver)
73
The Liver
• Largest gland in the body
(about 3 pounds)
• Over 500 functions
• Inferior to diaphragm in RUQ
and epigastric area protected
by ribs
• R and L lobes
• Plus 2 smaller lobes
• Falciform ligament
• Mesentery binding liver to
anterior abdominal wall
• 2 surfaces
• Diaphragmatic
• Visceral
• Covered by peritoneum
• Except “bare area” fused to
diaphragm
75
posterior
• Produces bile
• Picks up glucose from blood
• Stores glucose as glycogen
• Processes fats and amino acids
• Stores some vitamins
• Detoxifies poisons and drugs
• Makes the blood proteins
78
Liver histology
• Liver lobules (about one million of them)
• Hexagonal solid made of sheets of hepatocytes (liver cells)
around a central vein
• Corners of lobules have “portal triads”
(see next pic)
79
• Portal triad
• Portal arteriole
• Portal venule
• Branch of hepatic
portal vein
• Delivers substances
from intestines for
processing by
hepatocytes
• Bile duct
• Carries bile away
• Liver sinusoids
• Large capillaries between
plates of hepatocytes
• Contribute to central vein
and ultimately to hepatic
veins and IVC
• Kupffer cells
• Liver macrophages
• Old blood cells and
microorganisms removed
80
81
Hepatocytes (liver cells)
• Many organelles
• Rough ER – manufactures blood proteins
• Smooth ER – help produce bile salts and detoxifies blood-
borne poisons
• Peroxisomes – detoxify other poisons, including alcohol
• Golgi apparatus – packages
• Mitochondria – a lot of energy needed for all this
• Glycosomes - role in storing sugar and regulation of blood
glucose (sugar) levels
• Produce 500-1000 ml bile each day
• Secrete into bile canaliculi (little channels) then ducts
• Regeneration capacity through liver stem cells
82
Gallbladder*
• Bile is produced in the liver
• Bile is stored in the gallbladder
• Bile is excreted into the duodenum
when needed (fatty meal)
• Bile helps dissolve fat and
cholesterol
• If bile salts crystallize, gall stones
are formed
• Intermittent pain: ball valve effect
causing intermittent obstruction
• Or infection and a lot of pain,
fever, vomiting, etc.
* 83
Lies in LUQ kind of behind stomach
Is retroperitoneal
Has a head, body and tail
Pancreas
Head is in C-shaped curve of duodenum ( exocrine and
Tail extends left to touch spleen endocrine)
Main pancreatic duct runs the length of the pancreas,
joins bile duct
84
85
one acinus
Pancreatic exocrine
function
• Compound acinar (sac-like)
glands opening into large
ducts (therefore exocrine)
• Acinar cells make 22 kinds
of enzymes
• Stored in zymogen granules
• Grape-like arrangement
• Enzymes to duodenum,
where activated
86
Pancreatic endocrine function
(hormones released into blood)
• Islets of Langerhans (AKA “islet cells”) are the
hormone secreting cells
• Insulin (from beta cells)
• Lowers blood glucose (sugar)
• Glucagon (from from alpha cells)
• Raises blood glucose (sugar)
(more later)
87
Endocrine cells:
88
Abdominal and Pelvic Arteries
Review of some definitions….
90
New definitions
• Mesentery
• Double layer of peritoneum
• Extends to digestive organs from body wall
• Hold organs in place
• Sites of fat storage
• Route by which circulatory vessels and nerves reach organs
• Most are dorsal
• Extend dorsally from gut to posterior abdominal wall
• Ventral mesentery – from stomach and liver to anterior
abdominal wall
• Some mesenteries are called “ligaments” though not
technically such
91
Mesenteries
• Note dorsal, ventral and formation of retroperitoneal
position
92
Mesenteries
• Two ventral mesenteries
• Falciform “ligament”
• Binds anterior aspect of liver to
* anterior abdominal wall and
diaphragm
• Lesser omentum (=“fatty skin”) –
see diagram*
• All other mesenteries are dorsal
(posterior)
93
Mesenteries continued (all these are dorsal)
• Greater omentum
• Connects stomach to posterior abdominal wall – very roundabout
• Wraps around spleen: gastrosplenic ligament
• Continues dorsally as splenorenal ligament
• A lot of fat
• Limits spread of infection by wrapping around inflamed e.g. appendix
• “Mesentery” or mesentery proper
• Supports long coils of jejunum and ileum (parts of small intestine)
• Transverse mesocolon
• Transverse colon held to posterior abdominal wall
• Nearly horizontal sheet fused to underside of greater omentum
• Sigmoid mesocolon
• Connects sigmoid colon to posterior abdominal wall
95
Note: greater omentum, lesser omentum, falciform ligament, transverse
mesocolon, mesentery, sigmoid mesocolon
96
Some organs are “retroperitoneal”
• Are “behind the peritoneum”
• Fused to posterior (dorsal) abdominal wall
• Lack a mesentery
• Include:
• Most of duodenum (1st part of small intestine)
• Ascending colon
• Descending colon
• Rectum
• Pancreas
• Tend to cause back pain, instead of abdominal pain
97
REGULATION of INGESTION
• Hunger includes two sensations:
• From the stomach: hunger contractions/pangs
• Associated with low levels of nutrients in the blood
• Alimentary regulation: concerned with immediate effects of feeding
on the GIT
• Nutritional regulation: concerned with the maintenance of normal
stores of fat and glycogen in the body
• Coordinated by: feeding & satiety centres
• Feeding centre: in the lateral hypothalamus
• Stimulation hyperphagia
• Lesions lack of appetite & progressive inanition (loss of
weight)
• The muscular and fibrous elements of the digestive tract, and visceral
peritoneum are derived from the splanchnic mesoderm.
• The primitive gut is divided into three parts: the foregut, the midgut
and the hindgut, which are supplied respectively by three branches of
the dorsal aorta: the celiac artery, the superior mesenteric artery and
inferior mesenteric artery.
The foregut
• The derivatives of the foregut are the following:
• 1. the pharynx
• 2. the lower respiratory tract
• 3. the esophagus
• 4. the stomach
• 5. the duodenum
• 6. the liver and pancreas, and
• 7. the billiary apparatus
The midgut
• The derivatives of the midgut are the following:
• 1. the small intestines except proximal duodenum to point of
entrance of the common bile duct
• 2. the cecum and appendix
• 3. the ascending colon
• 4. two-third proximal part of the transverse colon
The hindgut
• The derivatives of the hindgut are the following:
• 1. The left one-third distal part of the transverse colon
• 2. the descending colon
• 3. the sigmoid colon
• 4. the rectum
• 5. the upper portion of the anal canal and
• 6. part of the urogenital system
Formation Of The Gut Tube(1)
•Folding of somatopleure and splanchnopleure of a flat 12 day dog embryobody
folds
•The cranial,caudal and lateral flexures/body folds.
•Rapid growth of the cranial end results in enlarged head process.
•Lateral body folds grow downwards and ventrally towards midline.
Formation Of The Gut Tube(2)
(pig)
The Intestinal Portal Tube
Differentiation Of Gut Tube
Notochord MIDGUT
PHARYNX FOREGUT
Brain Amnion
Amniotic cavity
HINDGUT
stomach Pd
Cloacal plate
Bladder
D
Liver
Oral plate Heart
Cr. Ca.
Pericardial Yolk sac
cavity
V
Hepatic Hind
diverticulum Yolk sac gut
Pharyngeal
Urachus Bladder
Cloaca
Derivatives Of The Gut tube/Oesophagus
• Gut tube consists of three layers.
--inner epithelium(1) derived from
endoderm forms the different
functional cells of the mucosa of the 2
GI-tract. 2
--the hepatocytes of the liver and 1
3
secretory cells of pancreas.
--the middle layer(2) of mesoderm Epithelium 2
forms the stroma, supporting cells
and the striated and smooth muscle 1
of the muscularis propria. 2 1
Duodenum
Cystic diverticulum caudal
Stomach
Hepatic diverticulum
A Second rotation 90o
counterclockwise on dorsoventral axis
Ventral mesogastrium
cranial C
D caudal
Completion of rotation
Stomach lies transverse
Ventral Morphogenesis Of The Foregut.
Pylorus Mesogastrium/
Fundus The Monogastric Stomach: The Dog
Lesser omentum
Duodenum
Differential growth, large fundus, narrow pylorus
E
Dorsal mesogastrium/fold of peritoneum from body wall forms
greater omentum
Morphogenesis Of The Intestinal Loop
D
Ca Cr
• Long intestinal loop herniates
into the coelomic cavity of the V
umbilical cord.
• Abdominal cavity expands to
accommodate the intestine the
midgut returns to the body
cavity.
• Sequence of withdrawal of the
loop determines final position of(SmallAmnion
intestines)
Amniotic cavity Foregut Midgut Chorion
the intestines. Pharynx
Notochord
• Cranial limb returns first and
forms the small intestines
• Caudal limb follows and forms
part of the small intestine and
the large intestines
(Large intestines)
Brain
Yolk sac
Heart Herniated loop
Morphogenesis Of The Foregut-hindgut
Derivatives and development of
the intestines in carnivores
•The distal foregut
-->develops into cranial
stomach
duodenum, liver, and pancreas.
•The midgut--> caudal
duodenum, jejunum. ileum,
caecum, colon (ascending).
•The hindgut-->colon
(transverse, descending),
cloaca.
Dorsal
•The cloaca--> rectum, bladder, Peritoneum aorta
urogenital sinus
( C ). Ca.
Bifurcation of lung Bronchial
bud , forms about 14 bud Oesophagus
bifurcations A and B, lateral view
C, ventral view
RIGHT C
Ventral Views of branching of LEFT
trachea into principal Pharynx
bronchi and lobar bronchi
Trachea Principal
bronchi
Parietal pleura
Pleural cavity
Pleuroperitoneal
canal Visceral
pleura
Principal bronchi branch into Peritoneal
lobar bronchi cavity Cr.
Endoderm Ca.
D Trachea
Respiratory epithelium,
glands of trachea,bronchi, Principal
larynx and lungs Parietal bronchi
Mesoderm pleura
lobar
Cartilage,muscle,blood bronchi
vessels and connective
tissues of trachea
bronchi,larynx and lungs Viscera
pleura
LEFT RIGHT
Cranial part of
Trachea cranial lobe
Species differences in lobes of lungs
B
Caudal part of
cranial lobe Minor differences
Right lung has four lobes in
Caudal lobe except the horse
cranial, middle,accessory
and caudal lobes
Left lung has three lobes
Accessory lobe Cranial lobe
Canine lungs
with cranial and caudal parts
and caudal lobes
Terminal
bronchioles Mesodem
C
Alveolar cells
Cr.
Terminal sac
Ca.
Terminal sac stage of lung development