Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do cracks that lead to failure form?
• How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves.
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph,
Chapter 8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)
thermal loading. loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e. Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National Callister 7e.
Semiconductor Corporation.)
Chapter 8 - 1
 Fracture mechanisms
• Ductile fracture
– Accompanied by significant plastic
deformation with high energy absorption
before fracture.
• Brittle fracture
– Little or no plastic deformation with low
energy absorption
– Catastrophic

Chapter 8 - 2
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Ductile Moderately
(Pure gold, Lead) Brittle
behavior: Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:
usually more desirable Warning before No
than brittle fracture! fracture warning

Chapter 8 - 3
 Example: Pipe Failures
• Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

• Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

Chapter 8 - 4
 Moderately Ductile Failure
• Failure Stages:
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and coalescence at surface
s

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.) Chapter 8 - 5
Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 6
 Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 7
Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Transgranular
(through grains)

Chapter 8 - 8
Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Intergranular
(between grains)

Chapter 8 - 9
 Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
s perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
-- the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- larger samples contain longer flaws!

Chapter 8 - 10
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 11
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

• Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a
sm  2so    K t so
 t 

t where
t = radius of curvature
so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 12
 Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners!
s smax
Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
s0
w
smax
2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 13
  1.25 x 10  2 
1/ 2

s m  2(170MPa) 
 2.5 x 10  4 
 2404 MPa
2404
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = 4
170
Chapter 8 - 14
 Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
• A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
“blunts” the crack.
deformed
region
brittle ductile

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy

Chapter 8 - 15
 Criterion for Crack Propagation
Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (sm)
exceeds a critical stress (sc)
1/ 2
 2E s 
i.e., sm > sc sc   
 a 
where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack

For ductile materials => replace s with s + p

where p is plastic deformation energy

Chapter 8 - 16
 Criterion for Crack Propagation
A relatively large plate of a glass is subjected to
a tensile stress of 40 Mpa. If the specific
surface energy and modulus of elasticity dor
this glass are 0.3 J/m2 and 69 Gpa,
respectively, determine the maximum length
of a surface flaw that is possible without
fracture.
 2 E s 
a   
 sc ^ 2 
 (2)(69 x10^9N/m^2 )(0.3 N / m) 
  
  (40x10^6 N/m^2 )^ 2 
 8.2 x10^ 6m  0.0082mm Chapter 8 - 17
 Fracture Toughness

Critical stress for crack propagation sc and crack length a

is as follows:
Kc = Ysc a

Y is a dimensionless parameter.

Chapter 8 - 18
Chapter 8 - 19
 Fracture Toughness Ranges
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B.5,
K Ic (MPa · m0.5 )

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100> 7. PET polyethelene terepthalete
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111> 8. PVC polyvinyle chloride
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete Chapter 8 - 20
0.5
 Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Ys a
• Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
--Scenario 1: Max. flaw --Scenario 2: Design stress
size dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
sdesign 
Kc 1  K c 
amax 
Y amax   Ysdesign 
amax
s
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture s
Chapter 8 - 21
Chapter 8 - 22
 Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
K Ic --failure stress = ?
• Use... sc 
Y amax
• Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
KIc
= s a = constant
Y 
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

s c amax   s
A c amax  B

Answer: (sc )B  168 MPa Chapter 8 - 23

 Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
8.12(b) is adapted from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J.
Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

Chapter 8 - 24
 Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy

• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914ºC)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials (s y > E/150)

Temperature Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

Chapter 8 - 25
 Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)
• Problem: Steels were used having DBTT’s just below
room temperature. Chapter 8 - 26
• WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
 Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top Adapted from Fig. 8.18,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
motor (Fig. 8.18 is from Materials
bearing bearing counter
Science in Engineering, 4/E
by Carl. A. Keyser, Pearson
flex coupling Education, Inc., Upper
tension on bottom Saddle River, NJ.)

• Stress varies with time. s

smax
-- key parameters are S, sm, and
S
cycling frequency sm
smin time

• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though smax < sy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Chapter 8 - 27
 Types of Fatigue Behavior

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
Sfat

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 28
 Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da
 K 
m
dN
~ s  a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
• s increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister &
• crack gets longer Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
• loading freq. increases. 8.21 is from D.J.
Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
Chapter 8 - 29
 Improving Fatigue Life

S = stress amplitude
1. Impose compressive Adapted from
surface stresses Fig. 8.24, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(to suppress surface near zero or compressive sm
cracks from growing) moderate tensile sm
Larger tensile sm

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister &
bad better Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 30
 Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (s) vs. time
s
s,e

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope e/t).
Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister &
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Rethwisch 8e.

increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 8 - 31

 Creep: Temperature Dependence
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Fig. 8.29,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 32
 Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
 Qc 
e s  K 2s exp   
n
activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Strain rate 200 Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
Stress (MPa)

427ºC (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals

increases 100 Handbook: Properties
538ºC and Selection:
with increasing 40 Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
T, s 20
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
9th ed., D. Benjamin
649ºC (Senior Ed.), American
10 Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 33
 Creep Failure
• Failure: along grain boundaries.

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)

Chapter 8 - 34
 Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime
• Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800ºC, s = 20,000 psi

100 Time to rupture, tr

T (20  log tr )  L

Stress (103 psi)

20 function of
temperature
10 applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

data for
S-590 Iron

12 16 20 24 28
1 (1073 K )( 20  log tr )  24x103
103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J. Ans: tr = 233 hr
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
Chapter 8 - 35
 Estimate the rupture time for
S-590 Iron, T = 750ºC, s = 20,000 psi
• Solution:

Time to rupture, tr 100

Stress (103 psi)

T (20  log tr )  L
20
temperature function of
applied stress 10
time to failure (rupture)
data for

(1023 K )( 20  log t r )  24 x103 S-590 Iron

1
12 16 20 24 28
103 L (K-h)
Ans: tr = 2890 hr Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J.
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
Chapter 8 - 36
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
• Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and s :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic s and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic s:
- cycles to fail decreases as s increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as s or T increases. Chapter 8 - 37
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 8 - 38