Lecture

Steady Flow Through Pipes

 Pipe Flow System
• A pipe is a closed conduit, generally of circular
cross-section, used to carry water or any other
fluid.
• When the pipe is running full, the flow is under
pressure. But if the pipe is not running full (as in
case of sewer pipes, culverts etc.), the flow is not
under pressure.
• In such case the atmospheric pressure exists inside
the pipe. We will discuss the flow of pipes under
pressure only.
 Significance of Conduits
 In considering the convenience and necessities
in every day life, it is truly amazing to note the
role played by conduits in transporting fluid.
 For example, the water in our homes is
normally conveyed through pressure pipelines,
from the distribution system, so that it will be
available when and where we want it.
 Significance of Conduits
 Moreover, virtually all of this water leaves our
homes as dilute wastes through sewers,
another type of conduits. Oil is often
transferred from their source by pressure
pipelines to refineries while gas is conveyed by
pipelines into a distribution network for
supply.
 Thus, it can be seen that the fluid flow in
conduits is of immense practical significance in
civil/environmental engineering.
 Hydraulic Radius

• Hydraulic Radius = Rh = A/P (8.1)

Where,
– A is cross-sectional Area
– P is the Wetted Perimeter (length of boundary in contact
with water)
 Hydraulic Radius
• For Pipe Flow:

A  R 2 & P  2R
R 2
R D
Rh   
2R 2 4
 Friction Head Loss in Conduits of
Constant Cross Section
• This discussion applies to either laminar or turbulent flow
and to any shape of cross section.
• Consider steady flow in a conduit of uniform cross section A,
not necessarily circular (Fig. 2.2). The pressures at sections 1
and 2 are p1 and p2, respectively. The distance between the
sections is L.

Fig. 2.2
Friction Head Loss in Conduits of
Constant Cross Section

p1 A  p2 A  LA sin   hf  0
Rf
Friction Head Loss in Conduits of
Constant Cross Section
 Friction in Circular Conduits
• For a circular pipe flowing full Rh = D/4. Substituting
this value into Eqs. (8.11) and (8.12), we obtain (for
both smooth-walled and rough walled conduits) the
well-known equation for pipe-friction head loss,
• Circular pipe, flowing full (laminar or turbulent flow):

L V2
and
hf  f (8.13)
D 2g
hf f V2
S (8.14)
L D 2g
 Friction in Circular Conduits
• Equation (8.13) is known as the pipe-friction equation, and as
the Darcy Weisbach equation. The friction factor f (also
sometimes called the Darcy friction factor) is dimensionless
and some function of Reynolds number.
• Much research has gone into determining how f varies with R
and also with pipe roughness. The pipe-friction equation
states that the head lost in friction in a given pipe is
proportional to the velocity head. The equation is
dimensionally homogeneous, and we may use it with any
consistent system of units.
 Friction in Circular Conduits
• Dimensional analysis gives us the proper form for an
equation, but does not yield a numerical result, since it does
not deal with abstract numerical factors. It also shows that
Eq. (8.13) is a rational expression for pipe friction. But we
must determine the exact form of j(R) and numerical values
for Cf and f by experiment or other means.
• For a circular pipe flowing full, by substituting Rh = ro/2,
where ro is the radius of the pipe, we can write Eq. (8.8) as
L 2t 0 L
hf  t 0  (8.16)
Rh r0
• where the local shear stress at the wall, to is equal to the
average shear stress because of symmetry.
t0
 Velocity Profile:

Fig. 8.3 - Velocity Profile in Laminar Flow and distribution of Shear Stress

• For a cylindrical fluid body of radius r concentric with the

pipe, if we follow a development similar to that of Eqs. (8.5)-
(8.8) and note that A = r2 and P = 2r , we can show that
2tL
hf  (8.17)
r
 Velocity Profile:
• where, t is the shear stress in the fluid at radius r; Since hf is
the same for all r (Sec. 8.4), equating the right sides of Eqs.
(8.16) and (8.17) yields
r
t t0 (8.18)
r0
• or the shear stress is zero at the center of the pipe and
increases linearly with the radius to a maximum value to at
the wall as in Fig. 8.3. This is true regardless of whether the
flow is laminar or turbulent.
 Velocity Profile:
• From Eqs. (8.8) and (8.13) and substituting Rh = D/4 for a
circular pipe, we obtain

f V2 f V2
t0     (8.19)
4 2 4 2g

• With this equation, we can compute to for flow in a circular

pipe for any experimentally determined value of f.
 HEAD

 p1 V 2   p2 V 2 
  z1  1   hL    z2  2  (5.28)
 2 g    2 g 
 
• In above equation each term has the dimensions of length. Thus
p/, called the pressure head, represents the energy per unit
weight stored in the fluid by virtue of the pressure under which the
fluid exists.
• Z called the elevation head or potential head, represents the
potential energy per pound of fluid;
• V2/2g, called the velocity head, represents the kinetic energy per
pound of fluid.
• We call the sum of these three terms the total head, usually
denoted by H, so that

p V2
H  z (5.35)
 2g
Graphical representation of Pressure Head and
Velocity Head

• If pressure head of liquid flowing in a pipe be plotted as

vertical ordinates on the centre line of the pipe, then the line
joining the tops of such ordinates is known as Hydraulic
Grade Line (HGL).
• If the sum of pressure heads and velocity heads of a liquid
flowing in a pipe be plotted as vertical ordinates on the
center line of the pipe then the line joining the tops of such
ordinates is known as Energy Grade Line (EGL) or Total
Energy Line (TEL).
• In other words EGL lies over the HGL by an amount equal to
the velocity heads as shown the figure.
Graphical representation of Pressure Head and
Velocity Head
 Loss of Head in Pipes
• When the water is flowing in a pipe, it experiences some
resistance to its motion, whose effect is to reduce the
velocity and ultimately the available head of water.
• Though there are many type of losses, yet the major loss is
due to frictional resistance of the pipe only.
• The frictional resistance depends upon the roughness of the
inside surface of pipe. It has been experimentally found that
more the roughness of inside surface of pipe, greater will be
the resistance.
• This friction is known as fluid friction and the resistance is
known as frictional resistance.
 Losses
• Fluids have losses due to friction in the pipe and minor losses
associated with tees, elbow, valves etc.
• Bernoulli’s Equation becomes,

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
  z1      z2    h f  hm
 2g    2g 
Where,
hf friction head loss.
hm minor head loss.
 1. Frictional Losses in Pipe Flow
In fluid flow, the friction head loss can be calculated by considering
the pressure losses along the pipelines.
In a horizontal pipe of diameter D carrying a steady flow there will
be a pressure drop in a length L of the pipe.
Equating the frictional resistance to the difference in pressure
forces, and manipulating resulted into the following expression:

L V2
hf  f
D 2g
This equation is known as Darcy-Weisbach (D-W) equation, in
which f is the friction factor. It should be noted that f is
dimensionless, and the value is not constant.
 2. Minor Losses
 In addition to head loss due to friction, there are always other
head losses due to pipe expansions and contractions, bends,
valves, and other pipe fittings. These losses are usually known
as minor losses (hm).

 In case of a long pipeline, the minor losses maybe negligible

compared to the friction losses, however, in the case of short
pipelines, their contribution may be significant. These are:

 Losses due to pipe fittings

 Sudden Enlargement
 Sudden Contraction
 Bends etc.
 2. Minor Losses
 Whenever the average velocity of turbulent flow is altered
either in direction or in magnitude large eddies are produced
causing a loss of energy in excess of pipe friction in that same
direction.

 There are two ways to represent these losses we can express

them as kv2/2g; where k is known as loss coefficient.
 Reynolds Number
• It is defined as “ the ratio of inertial to the
viscous force”. It is denoted by Re; and given by
𝐹𝐼 𝑉𝐷ρ
• 𝑅𝑒 = =
𝐹𝑉 μ
μ
• Since ʋ = so above equation may be written as
ρ
𝑉𝐷
• 𝑅𝑒 =
ʋ
• V= Velocity of the fluid
• D= Dia of pipe
• ʋ= Kinematic Viscosity of fluid(m2/s)
 Reynolds Number
• In case of pipes
𝐴 𝜋𝐷2ൗ 𝐷
• 𝑅ℎ = = 4
=
𝑃 𝜋𝐷 4
• above equation may be written as
4Rh=D
• Rh= Hydraulic Radius
• D= Dia of pipe
• So Darcy’s pipe friction becomes
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
• ℎ𝑙 =
4𝑅ℎ 2𝑔
 Reynolds Number
• And equation of Re (Reynolds's Number) modifies as
4𝑅ℎ 𝑉
• 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜗
• above equation may be written as
4Rh=D
• Rh= Hydraulic Radius
• D= Dia of pipe
• So Darcy’s pipe friction becomes
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
• ℎ𝑙 =
4𝑅ℎ 2𝑔
 Reynolds Number
• From dimension analysis we may express friction
factor f in term of Reynolds's number as
• (for Laminar flow)
64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
• (for Turbulent flow)
64
𝑓 = 0.25
𝑅𝑒
 Pipe Roughness
• Although there is no specific way to measure the pipe
roughness; different methods made by scientists can
be used to estimate the pipe roughness.
• Darcy’s formula for pipe friction factor is given below
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑙 =
2𝑔𝐷
• From the experiments it is observed that f depends
not only the size and shape of the projections but also
on their distribution or spacing.
 Nikuradse’s Experiment
• Noteworthy efforts made in this direction is made in
1933 by German Engineer, J. Nikuradse. He coated
several different size of pipes with sand grains that he
had sorted by sieving into different grain size of
reasonable uniform diameter. Let the size of the grains
are denoted by e., which is known as absolute
roughness. In previous section we have studied that
friction factor is a function of Reynolds's number. A
more general approach including e as a parameter
shows that
f=ɸ(R, e/D)
 Pipe Roughness
Prandtl using information and data from Nikuradse’s
experiments he developed an equation given below.

1 𝑅 𝑓
= 2 log( )
𝑓 2.51
• From the above equation it is observed that this
equation is an implicit equation.
• The explicit equation by Colebrook is given as
1 𝑅
= 1.8 log( )
𝑓 6.9
Moody Chart