Medical

Physics
 X-ray
imaging
2.2.9 Describe how X-rays are produced in an X-ray
tube
 X-ray production

• Electrons are produced by thermo-ionic

emission by the filament.

• Electrons are accelerated and formed into a

beam with the use of the filament focusing
cup.

• Electrons in the electron beam strike the

metal target where they interact with atoms
of the metal to produce bremsstrahlung X-
ray photons, K-alpha X-ray photons and K-
beta X-ray photons.
 Brehmsstrahlung photon production

A fast moving
bombarding
electron is
deflected by the
nucleus of an
atom of the target
metal. The atom
and leaves less
quickly, and the
lost energy is
carried away as a
single photon of
X-rays
 K- Alpha photon production

A fast moving
bombarding
electron collides
with an electron in
the K shell of an
atom of the target
metal. The shell
electron is ejected.
The ‘hole’ in the K-
shell is filled with an
electron from the L-
shell with the
emission of a single
X-ray photon
referred to as a K-
alpha photon
 K- Beta photon production

A fast moving
bombarding
electron collides
with an electron in
the K shell of an
atom of the target
metal. The shell
electron is ejected.
The ‘hole’ in the K-
shell is filled with an
electron from the M-
shell with the
emission of a single
X-ray photon
referred to as a K-
beta photon
 Kα

Bremsstrahlung
Kβ
2.2.10 Explain the interaction of X-rays with matter

When a beam of X-rays

travel through matter
they may be
Transmitted: pass through
unaffected as primary or
direct radiation
Absorbed: Transfer all of
their energy to the matter

Scattered: diverted in a
new direction with or
without loss of energy.
May leave the material as
scattered or secondary
radiation
 Attenuation
Represented by photons that are completely absorbed
and scattered.

• Exponential law of absorption

I = Ioe-μd
Io Intensity of incident beam
I Intensity of beam after passing through
the material
d Thickness of the material
μ Linear attenuation coefficient

The exponential law of absorption does not strictly

apply to wide and heterogeneous X-ray beams, but
can be used to give approximate calculations
 Attenuation

• Half-value layer (HVL): thickness of stated material

that will reduce the intensity of a narrow beam of X-
radiation to one half of its original value. It is a
measure of the penetrating power of the beam.
• Half value layer given by
HVL = 0.693/μ
HVL and μ apply only to narrow beams of X-rays.
• Example
The half value layer of an aluminum filter in a
mammography machine with a generating
potential of 30 kV is 0.328 mm.
Determine the thickness of filter that will be
required to reduce the intensity of X-radiation
from the mammography machine to 30% of its
value when it is operating at its generating
potential.
2.2.11 Discuss X-ray radiation hazards and protection
• Absorbed dose
Commonly used to define the quantity of radiation
delivered at a specified point in the radiation field.
It is the energy deposited per unit mass of the stated
material.
SI unit: Gray (Gy). 1Gy = 1 Jkg-1.
• Equivalent dose
Used only in relatively low levels of dose to compare
the end point biological effects of different radiation
types.
Defined as absorbed dose multiplied by a radiation
weighting factor wg.
SI unit: sievert (Sv). 1 Sv = 1 Jkg-1
Some values of wg for different types of radiation
Radiation type wg
Gamma and X rays 1
Electrons and beta particles 1
Alpha particles 20
* Protons and neutrons 5, 10, 20

* Depends on radiation energy

2.2.12 Explain the use of X-rays in mammography an

computed tomography

Mammography aims to
simultaneously demonstrate
• micro-calcifications of very small
size
• larger areas of tissue
Features of a
mammography
unit
Features of a mammography
unit – Patient care
• X-ray tube cathode on the chest wall
side of the patient – reduces tube
output on nipple side of the breast
• Target focus is located directly
above the chest wall edge –
minimizes beam divergence into the
patient
• Compression of breast to reduce
thickness – radiation dose reduced.
Features of a mammography
unit - Technical
• Focal spot ranging from 0.4 mm to
0.1 mm – high magnification and
low un-sharpness of image
• Low energy X-rays – close to mono-
energetic, small amount of scatter.
• Compression of breast –
geometrical un-sharpness reduced,
movement un-sharpness reduced,
spatial resolution improved.
 Features of a mammography
unit
• Images micro-calcifications that may be
100 µm or less.
• Average breast thickness on compression
is between 40 mm and 50 mm.
• Long exposure times of up to 2.0 s
• Average* absorbed dose to glandular
tissue 1.5 to 3 mGy
• Source to image distance 50 to 80 cm