Introduction to Social Science

Research

Dr. S K Kothe

MSEPP
University of Mumbai
kothesk@gmail.com
Introduction
 The scientific method
• In its broadest sense science is any systematic
knowledge that is capable of resulting in a
correct prediction or reliable outcome.
• A scientific method seeks to explain the events
of nature in a reproducible way, and to use
these findings to make useful predictions.
• Scientific thinking is one of the ways to find
answeres (besides practical thinking,
professional thinking, religious thinking,
ideological thinking…).
 Possible definitions of research
• A way of thinking: a habit of questioning what
you do a systematic examination to find
answeres
• search for knowledge via systematic
investigation
• investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of
accepted theories or laws in the light of new
facts, or practical application of such new or
revised theories or laws
 Why doing research?
• A quest for knowledge and understanding
• An interesting and useful experience
• A course for qualification
• A career
• A style of life
• A way to improve quality of life
• An ego boost
 Different fields of research
• The everyday research
• Professional research:
– Economic
– Management
• Development, R&D (applied research)
• Academic research („blue sky” research)
 Everybody is a researcher
• Looking for job
• Looking for housing
• Searching a real bargain
• …
 Typical research questions in
marketing
• How much is the researvation price of the
costumers?
• Which features of the product is not
needed and which features should be
improved?
• How much should I spend on advertising?
• …
 Development
• Apply scientific, engineering or
technological knowledge in a systematic
manner to improve performance
– Exploits knowledge created elsewhere
– Has a final product, service or process
– Usually strict time constraints
– Budget constraints
– Targeting profit increase
 Research & Development
• Term used in the industrial/business
sector
• Research is a process creating new
knowledge
• Development is a process that applies
knowledge
 Academic research vs. R&D
• Academic research seeks truth vs. R&D
seeks utility
• Industry can’t afford luxury of research vs.
Academics don’t want to be bothered with
financial problems
• Scientific vs. effective methodology
 The scientific research
• The aim of scientific research is to establish
facts.
• The classical model of scientific inquiry that
forms of approximate and exact reasoning
in a threefold scheme (Aristotle) :
– Abductive reasoning
– Deductive reasoning
– Induction (inductive reasoning)
 Abductive reasoning
• It is a process of choosing the hypothesis, which would
best explain the available evidence.
• Usually a natural and instinctive process.
• Its role in the scientific research: it offers appropiate
hypotheses built on observations and/or previous
studies.
• Abduction is not necessarily correct, but enhancing or
exploring different hypotheses will allow a systematic
approach to scientific research.
• Occam’s Razor: the rule of thumb known as ‘Occam’s
Razor’, where the simplest explanation is likely to be the
correct one.
 Deductive reasoning
• …is reasoning which constructs or
evaluates deductive arguments.
Deductive arguments are attempts to
show that a conclusion necessarily
follows from a set of premises.
• An example of a deductive argument:
1. All men are mortal
2. Socrates is a man
3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal
 Induction (inductive reasoning)
• ‘the real science is inductive’ – positivist paradigm
• reasoning from a specific case or cases and
deriving a general rule. It draws inferences from
observations in order to make generalizations.
• Stages:
– Observation: collect facts, without bias.
– Analysis: classify the facts, identifying patterns o of
regularity.
– Inference: From the patterns, infer generalizations about
the relations between the facts.
– Confirmation: Testing the inference through further
observation.
 Definition of scientific research
• A research process is scientific, if it is
– undertaken within the framework of a set of
philosophies (according to the specific field of
science),
– using procedures, methods and techniques
that have been tested for their validity and
reliability,
– designed to be unbiased and objective.
– It is empirical.
Some notions form the definition
• Set of philosophies: paradigm
• Reliability: the quality of measurement
• Validity: ‘Do we measure the right thing?’
• Unbiased: a built in error in sampling or in
the method of analising
• Objective: independent from the personal
characteristics and attitudes of the
researcher
 Some specifications of the social
sciences
• Hardness of controlling variables: the role
of experiences is very limited.
• Subjectivity is harder to be eliminated.
 Characteristics of research
• Controlled: to link the effect to the cause (and vice versa)
one should minimize the effect of factors other than want
to measure. Or in social sciences, you have to measure
as many factors as you can.
• Rigorous
• Systematic: one should follow a certain logocal
sequence.
• Valid and verifiable
• Empirical
• Critical: process, procedures and conclusions have to be
able to whitstand critical scrutiny.
 Types of research
• Application:
– Pure (‘blue sky’) research
– Applied research
• Objectives:
– Descriptive: descibes the research object systematically
– Correlational: discovers relationship/association/interdependence
between research objects or factors
– Explanatory: explaines the relationship between variables
– Exploratory: explores a research field that is undiscovered. If it
succeeds, other types of research could follow.
• Inquiry mode
– Qualitative: unstructured, flexible process, more able to explore or
explain
– Quantitative: structured, strict process, more able to measure,
quantify, compare and describe