15-16 Marzo 2012

15-16 Marzo 2012

Come raccogliere i dati

Cosimo De Nunzio
Department of Urology, Ospedale Sant’Andrea
University “La Sapienza”, Roma, Italy
cosimodenunzio@virgilio.it
 Data collection
 After a researcher defines the things, phenomena, or
variables to be studied, a problem and hypothesis are
formulated.

 The next step is for the researcher to determine how the

variables or things being studies must be measured,
observed, or recorded

 Appropriate data collection is essential to the validity of a

study
 Data collection: definition

 Data collection is a term used to describe a process of

preparing and collecting data,
 The purpose of data collection is to obtain information to
keep on record, to make decisions about important issues,
to pass information on to others.
 Primarily, data are collected to provide information
regarding a specific topic.

Wikipedia, 2012
 Data collection plan

 Pre collection activity: agree on goals, target data,

definitions, methods

 Collection: data collection

 Presenting findings: usually involves some form of sorting

analysis and or presentation
 Methods of Data collection
 Qualitative
– typically involves qualitative data, i.e., data obtained
through methods such interviews, on-site observations,
and focus groups that is in narrative rather than numerical
form

 Quantitative
– use numerical and statistical processes to answer specific
questions. Statistics are used in a variety of ways to
support inquiry or program assessment/evaluation.
 Methods of Data collection
 Qualitative data collection
– they tend to be open-ended and have less structured
protocols (i.e., researchers may change the data collection
strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or
informants)
– they rely more heavily on interactive interviews;
respondents may be interviewed several times to follow up
on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the
reliability of data
 Methods of Data collection
 Qualitative data collection
– findings are not generalizable to any specific population
– Data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal
of time.
– The researcher needs to record any potentially useful
data
– The qualitative methods most commonly used in
evaluation can be classified in:
• in-depth interview
• observation methods
• document review
 Methods of Data collection
 Quantitative data collection
– They produce results that are easy to summarize,
compare, and generalize.
– Participants may be randomly assigned to different
treatments.
– Collect data on participant and situational characteristics
in order to statistically control for their influence on the
dependent, or outcome, variable.
 Methods of Data collection
 Quantitative data collection
– To generalize from the research participants to a larger
population, the researcher will employ probability sampling
to select participants.
– Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:
• Experiments/clinical trials.
• Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the
number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the
day).
• Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
• Questionnaires
• Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to
face and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).
 Methods of Data collection:
type of the study
 Census: A census is a study that obtains data from every member
of a population. In most studies, a census is not practical, because of
the cost and/or time required.
 Sample survey. A sample survey is a study that obtains data from a
subset of a population, in order to estimate population attributes.
 Experiment. An experiment is a controlled study in which the
researcher attempts to understand cause-and-effect relationships.
The study is "controlled" in the sense that the researcher controls (1)
how subjects are assigned to groups and (2) which treatments each
group receives.
 Observational study. Like experiments, observational studies
attempt to understand cause-and-effect relationships. However,
unlike experiments, the researcher is not able to control (1) how
subjects are assigned to groups and/or (2) which treatments each
group receives.
 Methods of Data collection
Pros and cons
 Resources. When the population is large, a sample survey has a big resource
advantage over a census. A well-designed sample survey can provide very precise
estimates of population parameters - quicker, cheaper, and with less manpower than
a census.

 Generalizability. Generalizability refers to the appropriateness of applying findings

from a study to a larger population. Generalizability requires random selection. If
participants in a study are randomly selected from a larger population, it is
appropriate to generalize study results to the larger population; if not, it is not
appropriate to generalize.
Observational studies do not feature random selection; so it is not appropriate to
generalize from the results of an observational study to a larger population.

 Causal inference. Cause-and-effect relationships can be teased out when subjects

are randomly assigned to groups. Therefore, experiments, which allow the
researcher to control assignment of subjects to treatment groups, are the best
method for investigating causal relationships.
 Where do data come from?

Take a step back – if we’re starting from

baseline, how do we collect / find data?

– Secondary data
• data someone else has collected
– Primary data
• data you collect
 Secondary Data: Sources
 County health departments
 Vital Statistics – birth, death certificates
 Hospital, clinic, school nurse records
 Private and foundation databases
 City and county governments
 Surveillance data from state government
programs
 Federal agency statistics - Census, NIH, etc.
 Secondary Data: Limitations
When was it collected? For how long?
– May be out of date for what you want to analyze.
– May not have been collected long enough for detecting
trends.
Is the data set complete?
– There may be missing information on some observations
– Unless such missing information is caught and corrected for,
analysis will be biased.
 Secondary Data: Limitations
 Are there confounding problems?
– Sample selection bias?
– Source choice bias?
– In time series, did some observations drop out over time?
 Are the data consistent/reliable?
– Did variables drop out over time?
– Did variables change in definition over time?
 Is the information exactly what you need?
– In some cases, may have to use “proxy variables” – variables
that may approximate something you really wanted to measure.
– Are they reliable?
– Is there correlation to what you actually want to measure?
 Secondary Data – Advantages
 No need to reinvent the wheel.
– If someone has found the data, take advantage of it.
 It will save you money.
– Even if you have to pay for access, often it is cheaper in terms of
money than collecting your own data.
 It will save you time.
– Primary data collection is very time consuming.
 It may be very accurate.
– When especially a government agency has collected the data.
 It has great exploratory value
– Exploring research questions and formulating hypothesis to test.
 Primary Data - Examples
 Surveys
 Focus groups
 Questionnaires
 Diaries
 Personal interviews
 Biophysiologic Measures (in vivo/in vitro)
 Experiments and observational study
 Questionnaires
Advantages:
 Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed with a wide geographic coverage
 Can cover a large number of people or organisations.
 Relatively cheap.
 Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent.
 Possible anonymity of respondent.
 No interviewer bias.
Disadvantages:
 Design problems.
 Questions have to be relatively simple.
 Historically low response rate (although inducements may help).
 Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned.
 Require a return deadline.
 Several reminders may be required.
 International valididity
 Not possible to give assistance if required.
 Problems with incomplete questionnaires.
 Respondent can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or
not.
 Personal Interviews
(structured; semistructured; unstructured)
Advantages:
 Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information.
 Good response rate.
 Complete and immediate.
 Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem.
 Can investigate motives and feelings.
 Can use recording equipment.
 If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
 Used to pilot other methods.
Disadvantages:
 Need to set up interviews, time consuming and geographic limitations.
 Can be expensive.
 Normally need a set of questions.
 Respondent bias – tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end
interview quickly.
 Embarrassment possible if personal questions.
 If many interviewers, training required.
 Phone interviews
Advantages:
 Relatively cheap and quick.
 Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or organisations.
 Wide geographic coverage.
 High response rate.
 Help can be given to the respondent.
 Can tape answers.
Disadvantages:
 Questionnaire required.
 Not everyone has a telephone.
 Repeat calls are inevitable – average 2.5 calls to get someone.
 Time is wasted.
 Respondent has little time to think.
 Cannot use visual aids.
 Can cause irritation.
 Good telephone manner is required.
 Primary Data - Limitations
 Do you have the time and money for:
– Designing your collection instrument?
– Selecting your population or sample?
– Administration of the instrument?
– Entry/collection of data?
 Uniqueness
– May not be able to compare to other populations
 Researcher error
– Sample bias
– Other confounding factors
 Data collection:
Take home message
 Data collection is essential for study validity
 Medical clinical and experimental research is mostly based
on quantitative method of data collection
 Will the data answer my research question?
 If that data exist in secondary form, then use them to the
extent you can, keeping in mind limitations.
 But if it does not, and you are able to fund primary collection,
then it is the method of choice.
 Thank you !

Urocampus 2011, PCa working group