Instrumentation

Advanced
Course
Part 2
 External floating roof tank
An external floating roof tank is a storage tank commonly
used to store large quantities of petroleum products such as
crude oil or condensate. It consists of an open- topped
cylindrical steel shell equipped with a roof that floats on the
surface of the stored liquid. The roof rises and falls with the
liquid level in the tank. As opposed to a fixed roof tank there
is no vapor space in the floating roof tank (except for very low
liquid level situations). In principle, this eliminates breathing
losses and greatly reduces the evaporative loss of the stored
liquid. There is a rim seal system between the tank shell and
roof to reduce rim evaporation.
The roof has support legs hanging down into the liquid. At
low liquid levels the roof eventually lands and a vapor space
forms between the liquid surface and the roof, similar to a
fixed roof tank. The support legs are usually retractable to
increase the working volume of the tank.
Advantages
External roof tanks are usually installed for environmental or economical reasons to
limit product loss and reduce the emission of volatile organic compounds (an air
pollutant).
Normally (roof not landed), there is little vapor space, and consequently a much
smaller risk of rim space fire.
Disadvantages . Snow can accumulate on the roof; the roofs are designed to hold up
to 10" / 255mm of water.
Principles of pumping & metering stations
& meter proving
Accurate flow measurement is essential to the cost-effective
operation of pipelines. While highly precise, and often
expensive, flow meters are required to perform care transfer
measurements for payment purposes, there are also
intermediate process measurement points within pumping
stations, for example, that can be served with less expensive
technology
The light crude in the pipeline already had passed through
heaters/treaters or main separators, which left it devoid of
gases, water or other constituents that would disturb the
specific gravity (SG) of the oil. In this region, the oil has an API
gravity rating of 40 or above
With various pipeline sizes from 6 to 8 inches, the liquid
velocity varied between 1 to 16 ft/s (0.3 to 4.9 m/s). Flow
meters are mounted to the discharge lines.
The engineering team reviewed several flow meter technologies, including
differential pressure (dP), positive displacement (PD) and turbine.
Meter proving is the physical testing of the performance of a liquid meter in a
liquid service. The main purpose of the test is to assure accuracy. The basic
principles of proving a liquid meter are the same whether it is a Coriolis meter,
turbine meter, or a positive displacement meter. Each type of meter has its own
characteristics when being proved, but the basic principles are the same
Meter proving
Meter factor prover known volume/meter reading. 

When proving a meter, the process-fluid conditions must be as stable as

possible throughout the proving process. This includes:
Temperature
Pressure
Flow rate
Density
 Before starting a meter proving, let the liquid flow through the meter and prover
long enough so that the conditions stabilize. Check for leaks or fluid bypassing
around the prover or meter. The only way to obtain a reliable meter factor is to have
all the liquid that is measured by the meter also measured by the prover.
When in the field, a meter’s performance may change because of:
•Installation effects from piping
•Mechanical wear of the meter
•Changes in the physical properties of the metered fluid
Therefore, the meter is proved to adjust for these changes, and the meter factor is
applied when calculating the total net volume.
Meters are proved on a periodic basis determined contractually by the buyer and
seller or by company policy. Some meters are proved for every batch transaction,
which could be several times a day, while other meters may be proved as little as
once a quarter. Regular proving ensures that the metering system is providing
accurate flow data and confirms the integrity of the metering system.
Meter Factor;
“Meter factor” means the number obtained by dividing the gross standard
volume of liquid passed through a meter, as measured by a prover during
proving, by the corresponding meter-indicated volume at standard conditions
& used to Used to adjust meter readings to show the actual volume measured
by the meter.
 HP pumps & instrumentation
Multistage centrifugal pumps have been one of the most popular
types of pumps in recent years. Their ability to provide engineers with
a flexible range of flow and head, along with their high degree of
energy efficiency makes them a great choice for many applications.
Multistage centrifugal pumps have multiple liquid chambers (or
stages) that are connected in series. Fluid enters the first chamber at
suction line pressure and leaves at some elevated pressure. Upon
leaving the first stage, the fluid enters the second stage where the
pressure is increased further.
The more stages the pump has, the higher the final discharge
pressure. These pumps have the unique ability to produce higher and
higher pressures with the addition of every stage, but flow range
always remains constant for a given rpm.
There are a couple different types of multistage pumps. Those with a
horizontal shaft, and those with a vertical shaft.
 Horizontal Multistage Centrifugal Pumps

This type of pump has a segmented casing or (cast iron case) with modular
interstage components. The rotating assembly is held between bearing
housings, making the assembly more balanced for high pressures.
They typically handle higher flow rates than vertical multistage pumps.
The horizontal configuration of multistage pumps is best applied in
applications like these;
•Reverse Osmosis
•Boiler Feed
•Water injection system.
•Pressure Boosting
•High Pressure Cleaning
•Mine dewatering
Equipment protection instrumentation should be studied against the cost of a
machine failure Repairs.
Types of Instrumentation
Process;
Pressure, Temperature, Flow
Power;
Mechanical -Vibration, Bearing Temperature
Alarm – Any of above
S/D – Any of Above
 Dosing pumps.

A dosing pump is a small, positive displacement pump. It is

designed to pump a very precise flow rate of a chemical or
substance into either a water, steam or gas flow. A dosing pump
will deliver this precise flow rate of chemical or other product by
a number of different methods but it generally involves drawing
a measured amount into a chamber and then injecting this
volume of chemical into the pipe or tank being dosed. Dosing
pumps are used in a variety of applications from agriculture,
industry, manufacturing to medicine.
A dosing pump is generally quite small and is powered by
either a small electric motor or air actuator. They are controlled
either by an external control system or more commonly an
internal pump controller that can alter the flow rate, the on/off
function and also things like alarms and warnings for run dry,
degassing and low product levels.
 Principle of operation
Depending on the brand and model, a dosing pump functions in a
variety of different methods. All these methods involve taking a
measured amount of a chemical and then injecting that product into a
pipe or similar vessel. There are a couple of major parts to a dosing
pump setup:
1.The chemical tank or container. The product that is being dosed,
2.The foot valve. This is a one way valve that is attached to a suction
line. It is placed into the drum of product and allows the pump to
remain primed. It should have a weight on it so it remains in the
bottom of the drum of product and sometimes it has a float switch
attached to it so the pumps has an alarm activate if the product runs
out.
3.The pump itself. This can vary in size and materials but is generally a
variety of chemical resistant plastic (PVC, PE or similar), rubbers or
stainless steel. It has a suction line attached to the inlet and the dosing
line attached to the suction. The mechanics of the pump can vary.
 4.The injector. At the point at which the product is
injected into the product, there is an injector point. This is
a one way valve so that when the dosing pump pushes an
amount of product into the line.
6.Control system. Occasionally there is a control system
installed to ensure the dosing pump is accurate and turns
on and off at particular times. This can be as simple as a
timer or flow switch right through to a full SCADA or
similar central control system with sensors for pH,
chlorine and similar and variable rate control to raise and
lower the level being dosed. It may also be integrated
into a more complex operations system.
Google CBF
 Close loop control system
A control system is a system of integrated elements
whose function is to maintain a process variable at a
desired value or within a desired range of values. The
control system monitors a process variable or variables,
then causes some action to occur to maintain the desired
system parameter. In the example of the central boiler
unit, the system monitors the temperature of the boiler
using a temp. element . When the temperature of the
boiler drops to a preset value, the furnace turns on,
providing a heat source. The temperature of the boiler
increases until reaching a certain set point will get the
furnace to turn off. So there is Control system input & a
Control system output
 open-loop control system
The open-loop configuration does not monitor or measure the
condition of its output signal as there is no feedback.
An open-loop control system is one in which the control
action is independent of the output. An example of an open-
loop control system is a chemical addition pump with a
variable speed control. The feed rate of chemicals that
maintain proper chemistry of a system is determined by an
operator, who is not part of the control system. If the
chemistry of the system changes, the pump cannot respond
by adjusting its feed rate (speed) without operator action.
Another example, an irrigation sprinkler system,
programmed to turn on at set times could be an example of
an open-loop system if it does not measure soil moisture as a
form of feedback. Even if rain is pouring down on the lawn,
the sprinkler system would activate on schedule, wasting
water.
 closed-loop control system
A closed-loop control system is one in which control action is
dependent on the output. an example of a closed-loop control system.
The control system maintains water level
in a storage tank. The system performs this task by continuously
sensing the level in the tank by a feed back signal. and adjusting a
supply valve to add more or less water to the tank. The desired level is
preset by an operator, who is not part of the system.
Feedback is information in a closed-loop is to told the control system
about the condition of a process variable. This variable is compared
with a desired condition to produce the proper control action on the
process. Information is continually "fed back" to the control circuit in
response to control action. In the example, the actual storage tank
water level, sensed by the level transmitter, is feedback to the level
controller. This feedback is compared with a desired level to produce
the required control action that will position the level control as
needed to maintain the desired level.
 Automatic control system
An automatic control system is a preset closed-loop control system that
requires no operator action. This assumes the process remains in the normal
range for the control system. An automatic control system has two process
variables associated with it: a controlled variable and
a manipulated variable.
A controlled variable is the process variable that is maintained at a specified
value or within a specified range. In the previous example, the storage tank
level is the controlled variable.
A manipulated variable is the process variable that is acted on by the control
system to maintain the controlled variable at the specified value or within the
specified range. In the previous
example, the flow rate of the water supplied to the tank is the manipulated
variable.
In any automatic control system, the four basic functions that occur are:
Measurement
Comparison
Computation
Correction
The three functional elements needed to perform the functions of an
automatic control system
are:
A measurement element
An error detection element
A final control element
Relationships between these elements and the functions they perform
in an automatic control system . The measuring element performs the
measuring function by sensing and evaluating the controlled variable.
The error detection element first compares the value of the controlled
variable to the desired value, and then signals an error if a deviation
exists between the actual and desired values. The final control element
responds to the error signal by correcting the manipulated variable of
the process.
 P & ID Drawings & symbols
Process and Instrumentation Diagrams use special shapes to
represent different types of equipment's, valves, instruments
and pipelines.
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams or simply P&IDs are the
“schematics” used in the field of instrumentation and control
(Automation)
The P&ID is used by field techs, engineers, and operators to
better understand the process and how the instrumentation is
inter connected.
The P&ID will use symbols and circles to represent each
instrument and how they are inter-connected in the process.
Tag Numbers
Tag “numbers” are letters and numbers placed within or near
the instrument to identify the type and function of the device.
 water injection technology
In the oil industry, water flooding or water injection is where water is
injected into the oil field, usually to increase pressure and thereby
create more production. Water injection wells can be found both on-
and offshore, to increase oil recovery from an existing reservoir.
Water is injected to support pressure of the reservoir and also to
sweep or displace oil from the reservoir, and push it towards a well.
Normally only 30% of the oil in a reservoir can be extracted, but water
injection increases that percentage (known as the recovery factor) and
maintains the production rate of a reservoir over a longer period.
Surface water treatment for injection;
In many operations worldwide, surface waters are injected into
producing formations to improve oil recovery. The types of surface
waters used range from seawater (salt water) to lake water (brackish)
to river water (fresh water).
 Surface water injection is an attractive option for the following reasons:
In many cases, surface water is easily accessible and readily available without
high-cost well-drilling and well-completion activities.
Surface-water supplies are considered inexhaustible.
Most surface-water supplies can be used without having to pay fees or taxes.
The use of surface water creates very little environmental impact or concern.
Common types of contaminants;
Surface water must be treated to remove undesirable components before
injection.
solids (sand)
dissolved gas (oxygen)
biological material (plankton and bacteria).
dissolved solids (sulfate)
Treatment of surface water for injection requires a specially designed system
made up of various components to remove or control any contaminants in the
water. The system is engineered to perform the required treatment in the most
cost-effective and environmentally sensitive manner. A filtering system
Commonly used methods for removal or control of these contaminants are
discussed in this section.
 Turbine and generator monitoring instruments
Continuous monitoring of power generation equipment
can have a great impact on maintaining a reliable flow of
power to consumers as well as alerting the power generation
equipment operator to potential equipment damage if timely
repairs are not made.
So successful power plant generator & turbine maintenance
in today’s competitive industry means controlling the risk of
failures and unplanned downtime by making smart decisions
based on more accurate operational and inspection data.
Generator Health Monitoring (GHM) is a fully integrated and
modular online, remote monitoring suite available for any
type of power plant generator that allows continuous
inspection and condition assessment as well as the earliest
identification of any improving issues.
Now we will see the essential monitoring systems.
 Types of monitoring & solutions
Mechanical Vibration Monitoring;
Online monitoring of shaft and bearing vibration in a turbines
and generators can help identify various undesirable conditions
including unbalance, misalignment, looseness, bearing wear,
rubbing, hydraulic problems, electrical problems, resonance, and
abnormality of rotating parts .
New technology developed a (Computerized Diagnostic System)
makes it possible to monitor the status dynamically during
machine operation. Machine condition issues resulting in
vibration can be identified and corrective action taken well
before failure.
CE: Case Expansion
KØ: Phase Reference & Speed
TP1: Thrust Position One
TP2: Thrust Position Two
ECC: Eccentricity ( abnormality)
X: Radial Vibration, Horizontal
Y: Radial Vibration, Vertical
VP: Valve Position
DE: Differential Expansion
 Shaft Relative Vibration: Eddy Probe systems measure the dynamic motion
(radial vibration) of the rotor shaft relative to the bearing housing. This
parameter will detect common machinery problems such as rubs, imbalance,
bearing stability, etc. Eddy Probes also provide a measurement of the shaft
position within the bearing clearance, giving warnings of harmful preloads
and misalignment.
Thrust Position: Thrust position is the Eddy Probe measurement of axial
movement of the rotor when the machine is running under load. Excessive
horizontal movement of the rotor can result in catastrophic (distressing)
damage in mere seconds. It is common to use two Eddy Probes when
deciding to utilize automatic shutdown on a Danger Alarm indication.
Eccentricity: Eccentricity ( abnormality) is the measurement of Rotor Bow
at slow roll by an Eddy Probe. It may be caused by any or a combination of a
fixed mechanical bow, misalignment, temporary thermal bow, or a gravity
bow. It is also may be used to calculate shaft attitude (situation) angle, which
is an indicator of rotor stability.
Speed: An eddy probe or magnetic pickup may observe a key, tooth or gear.
The signal may be interfaced to a transmitter, tachometer, or used for Zero
Speed for turning gear engagement.
 Phase: Phase angle is the relationship of one vibration signal to
another vibration signal and is expressed in degrees. It is not usually
continuously monitored, but is available as a diagnostic aid in vibration
analysis and balancing. An Eddy Probe is typically used to observe a
once per turn event such as a key or a notch.
Case Expansion: Case Expansion is the relation of the shell or case in
relation to its foundation. Turbine generator sets are tied down at one
end and allowed to thermally expand at the other. An LVDT is used to
measure this thermal growth, which on large machines can be several
inches. Many customer’s choose to monitor both sides of the front
standard to ensure that the case is thermally expanding evenly.
Valve Position: Valve position is measured with a LVDT observing the
cam shaft rotation. It is an indicator of turbine load when the machine
is on-line.
Differential Expansion: Differential expansion on a turbine is the
relative Eddy Probe measurement of the rotor’s axial thermal growth
with respect to the case. Differences in thermal growth of the rotor to
case growth can lead to rubs and catastrophic failure.
 Temperature monitoring
Turbine temperature monitoring;
A complex engine like a gas turbine needs to be thoroughly
instrumented in order to be safely and correctly operated: the
most important parameter to be monitored is definitely
temperature.
Turbine Temperature Sensors for a variety of sectors. For
example gas turbine temperature sensors measure the
temperature at different points in a turbine, from the exhaust
temperature to the bearing temperature. Using thermocouples
& RTDs combination system is a good for temp. monitoring &
alarming system. The sensors are installed on the most imporant
point to accurate monitoring. All the data connected to main
monitoring unit.
 Generator temp monitoring
Continues on line operating turbine with load , increases the stresses
on equipment due to cyclic and peaking operation, demand more
overall equipment performance monitoring. Improved monitoring
enables operators and engineers to take predictive actions in response
to changing turbo-machinery conditions.
Generator units called upon to cycle load or peak must respond
safely or quickly. The imposed stresses make temperature monitoring
critical. Experience has shown that proper monitoring of stator
winding temperatures during startup and steady-state operation
makes it possible to detect abnormalities and take corrective action
before major damage occurs. New equipment is often provided with a
reference range of normal characteristics to aid in the detection of
abnormalities.
Generators may be equipped with a combination of Resistance
Temperature Detectors (RTD) and thermocouples (TC) to measure
temperatures at stator windings, armature, connector
 rings, bushings. Stator winding measurement points may be
between the top and bottom coils at the sides in the stator
slot .An equal number of sensors is used for each winding
phase. During operation, these sensors provide a profile – a
temperature pattern – of the stator winding. This profile is
more informative than actual individual temperatures and a
change in pattern can indicate developing problems such as
high resistance, unusual circulating currents within a phase
group, a change in current distribution within the coils of a
phase group, or a change in cooling parameters.
The temperature monitoring system must interface with the
sensors, acquire all the necessary data, make appropriate
calculations, and alert the operator to the possible need for
corrective action.
 Oil lubrication system
Turbine engine’s oil systems can also be classified as a
pressure relief system that maintains a somewhat constant
pressure: the full flow type of system, in which the pressure
varies with engine speed, and the total loss system. One of
the main functions of the oil system in turbine engines is
cooling the bearings by carrying the heat away from the
bearing by circulating oil around the bearing.
The exhaust turbine bearing is the most critical lubricating
point in a gas turbine engine because of the high temperature
normally present. In some engines, air cooling is used in
addition to oil cooling the bearing, which supports the
turbine. Air cooling, referred to as secondary air flow, is
cooling air provide by bleed air from the early stages of the
compressor.
 Turbine speed control
Speed governor;
Turbine governing is the procedure of controlling the flow rate of fuel or
steam to a turbine so as to maintain its speed of rotation as constant. The
variation in load during the operation of a turbine can have a significant
action on its performance. In a practical situation the load frequently varies
from the designed or economic load and thus there always exists a
considerable deviation from the desired performance of the turbine. The
primary objective in the turbine operation is to maintain a constant speed of
rotation irrespective of the varying load. This can be achieved by means of
governing in a turbine. There are many types of governors.
In a steam Turbine Governing is the procedure of monitoring and
controlling the flow rate of steam into the turbine with the objective of
maintaining its speed of rotation as constant. The flow rate of steam is
monitored and controlled by interposing valves between the boiler and the
turbine. Depending upon the particular method adopted for control of steam
flow rate, different types of governing methods are being practiced. So the
control valve of the steam increasing or decreasing the flow according to the
load applied on the generator by using a feed back signal to achieve the job.
 Where as in gas turbines the governor control the amount of
gas flow to maintain the turbine speed constant regardless the
changing in the load.