Instrumentation

Course two
 Instrumentation
•As we have seen in the previous course that all the
variable process parameters are could be measured
with a proper instruments that match the type
control.
• Controlling the flow is one of the important
actions happening during process production like
changing from a state to other or filtering like
what used in water plants, liquids flow &
separation like in oil separators in oil production
plants. There are a lot of examples of flow control.
An important instruments which is part of the flow
control system is the valves.
 Valve definition
• The valve is defined as a mechanical or electromechanical device by
which the flow of a gas, liquid, slurry, or soft dry materials can be
started, stopped, diverted, and/or regulated. Control valves normally
respond to signals generated by independent devices such as flow
meters or temperature control instruments. These valves could be
controlled manually, electrically hydraulically or pneumatically. The
three basic functions of the valves are:
• 1. Stop the flow.
• 2. Keep a constant direction & rate of the flow.
3. Regulate the flow rate and pressure.
• There are many types of valves used in the industrial, power, oil &
gas plants. Selection of the correct valve is very important to achieve
mentioned functions.
 Types of operation
The force required to operate a valve can be
carried out either manually (by hand) or
mechanically. Mechanical attachments (actuators)
to a valve are usually either electrically,
pneumatically or hydraulic operated actuators.
The actuators can be controlled locally i.e. a
technician pushing a button/switch to open or
close. or by the plant control system (control room)
or automatically when the valve is a part of a
control loop .In this case the valve can be opened
or closed completely or partially depends on
control signal which is part of the process loop &
requirements.
Types of Valves :
1- Ball Valve
• Ball valve is a quarter turn operated valve. The closure
member is a spherical plug with a through hole. When
the valve is in open state, the through hole is in-line with
the fluid flow and hence, the fluid passes through it. The
valve is closed by rotating the globe by 90 Deg. such that
the hole now becomes perpendicular to the flow and
hence, stops the flow.
• The seat is usually made up of soft materials to offer a
tight shutoff. Ball valves are not recommended to be used
in a partially open condition. Due to misalignment
between the flow direction and opening of the plug, large
pressure drop takes place in partially open condition.
• Due to above specified challenges, ball valves are mostly used in
shutoff applications. Ball valves are commonly used in steam,
water, oil, gas, air, corrosive fluids. They can handle slurries and
dusty dry fluids. Ball valves are not used with abrasive and
fibrous materials as it poses risk of damage to the seat and plug
surface.

.
• Ball valve can be driven by hand or by electrical ,pneumatic
actuators.

Pneumatic Actuator Operated Ball Valve

2- Gate Valve
• Gate valve is a sliding type valve also known as knife valves or
slide valve. It has a linear motion in which a flat closure element
slides into the flow stream to provide shut-off. In fully open
conditions, the flow area is equal to the area of the pipe and hence,
there is negligible pressure drop across the valve. They are one of
the most common valves used.
• Gate valve should ideally be used as on-off valve. It is not advisable
to use them as throttling valves because in partly open conditions,
corrosion of gate might take place. In partially open conditions, due
to vibrations, valve is insecure to quick wear and tear. Also, during
closing and opening, there is considerable amount of friction and
hence, opening and closing these vales quickly and frequently is not
possible. These valves find their use in petrochemical industry due to
the fact that they can work with metal-metal sealing.
.
3- Plug valve
• Similar to ball valves, plug valves are also quarter turn
type of valves. This valve consists of a plug which can be
either cylindrical or conical in shape. The plug has a
through slit which remains in-line with the flow in the
open condition. When the plug is turned by 90 Deg., this
slit becomes perpendicular to flow and the valve gets
closed.
Plug valves are well suited to handle fluids with
suspended solids, slurries etc.
Plug valves are primarily used for on-off applications.
When used for throttling purpose, the pressure drop
through the valve is higher because of misalignment
between flow direction and the direction of the opening
(slit).
Packing types
 4- Butterfly Valve
• A butterfly valve is from a family of valves called quarter-turn valves.
Butterfly Valve are commonly used in multiple industries for varied
applications. Butterfly Valve composed of a disc positioned in the
center of the valve, a rod passes through the disc to an actuator on the
outside of the valve. Rotating the actuator turns the disc either parallel
or perpendicular to the flow. Quarter turn operation ensures quick
operating of the valve. In the open condition there is minimum
obstruction to the fluid flow through the valve as the flow passes
around the disc aerodynamically. This results in very less pressure
drop through the valve. Butterfly valves are generally favoured
because they cost less than other valve design, and are lighter weight
so they need less support.
.
• Due to easy mode of operation the valve can be
actuated easily without requiring high torques so
reducing wearing wear probability. Another
advantage offered by butterfly valve is their compact
size. The valve is quite compact, resembling a metal
disc. This makes their installation very easy. They
can be used to handle slurries and fluids with
suspended solids as there are no cavities for
deposition of solid particles inside the valve body.
This type of valves are handle-operated, gear-
operated, or mechanically, pneumatically actuated.
• There are Three types are commonly used in respect
to the installation namely: Lug type, Wafer type and
double-flanged.
Butterfly valve controlled by actuator
 5- Globe Valve
A globe valve regulates flow in a pipeline. It is used to control or stop
the flow of liquid or gas through a pipe. Globe valves are named for their
spherical body shape with the two halves of the body being separated by
an internal block .
Although these valves exhibit slightly higher pressure drops than gate •
ball valves, they may be used where the pressure drop through the
valve is not a controlling factor.
• Globe valves are also known as throttle valves .the flow of liquid is
controlled by a movable spindle which lowers to a fixed seat, thereby
restricting the flow through the valve opening; the spindle is fitted
with a disk to provide tight closure; usually enclosed in a chamber
having aspherical shape.
 Globe valves have many advantages and disadvantages •
for users. They have excellent and precise throttling
ability for high-pressure systems. The disadvantages
include low-flow coefficients and a longer operating time
because the operator must turn the handle and stem
many times to ensure the valve is completely open or
completely closed. Globe valve can be controlled by hand
well, pneumatic or electrical actuator.
These valves can be used in three configurations, •
depending upon the applications
a. Tee pattern
b. Angle Pattern
c. Y Pattern
 flow coefficients
• The flow coefficient of a device is a relative measure of its
efficiency at allowing fluid flow. It describes the relationship
between the pressure drop across an orifice , valve or other
assembly and the corresponding flow rate.
• Mathematically the flow coefficient Cv (or flow capacity rating
of valve) can be expressed as:

• where:
• Q is the rate of flow (expressed in US gallons per minute);
• SG is the specific gravity of the fluid (for water = 1);
• ΔP is the pressure drop across the valve (expressed in psi).
Globe valve controlled by pneumatic actuator
 6- Pinch Valve
• Pinch valves consist of a plastic tube or sleeve which is made up of
reinforced elastomers. The sealing or closing action is achieved by
throttling or pinching this sleeve or tube. Pinch valves are best suited
for handling slurries and fluids having suspended solids. Pinch valves
have many benefits over the other types of valves. They can be used for
handling corrosive fluids as there is no contact between the fluid
carried and the actual valve mechanism. Once suitable sleeve material
is selected, this valve can work with a variety of fluids. As fluid being
carried does not come in contact with the metal parts, these valves can
be used for food grade applications also.
• Generally, pinch valves are suitable for low pressure applications.
When used with abrasive slurries, they should be used as on-off valves;
if used for throttling purposes, the sleeve will get worn out.
Pinch valve controlled by pneumatic actuator
7- Needell valve
A valve containing a tapered rod that can be moved in or
out to control the flow of a fluid. Needle valves are used to
control flow in delicate gauges, which might be damaged
by sudden surges of fluid under pressure.
They are also used in situations where the flow must be
gradually halted, and where precise adjustments of flow
are necessary or where a small flow rate is desired. Can
also be used as on/off valve or for throttling service. They
are also ideal in vacuum systems, when a precise control of
gas flow is required.
.
 check valve or non return valve
• A check valve allows flow in one direction and automatically prevents back
flow (reverse flow) when fluid in the line reverses direction. They are one of
the few self-automated valves that do not require assistance to open and close.
Unlike other valves, they continue to work even if the plant facility loses air,
electricity, or the human being that might manually cycle them.
• Check valves are found everywhere, including the home. If you have a sump
pump in the basement, a check valve is probably in the discharge line of the
pump. Outside the home, they are found in virtually every industry where a
pump is located.
• Like other valves, check valves are used with a variety of media: liquids, air,
other gases, steam, condensate, and in some cases, liquids with fines or
slurries. Applications include pump and compressor discharge, header lines,
vacuum breakers, steam lines, condensate lines, chemical feed pumps, cooling
towers, loading racks, nitrogen purge lines, boilers,, utilities, pressure pumps,
sump pumps, wash-down stations, and injection lines.
There are many different check valve designs, with the
oldest and most common being the swing check.
A- Lift Check Valve
Lift check valves work simply on the principle of •
gravity. When the fluid comes in the forward
direction, the disc gets lifted from the seat against the
gravitational force by the force of incoming fluid. The
valve thus allows fluid to pass in this direction. When
the fluid comes in opposite direction, it supports the
force of gravity and the disc remains on the seat,
keeping the valve closed.
Tight shutoff can be difficult to achieve in case back
pressures are low. The valve will leak the fluid in
such situations.
 C- Spring loaded Check Valves
• In this kind of check valves, tight shut-off it
provided using a spring. The spring holds back
the disc on the seat. Even in the forward flow
condition, the fluid should exert some pressure,
called cracking pressure in order to open the
disc against the spring pressure.
 D- Diaphragm Type Check Valve
• This kind of check valves uses
diaphragms arranged in such a way
that that open to allow the flow
only in forward direction. When
flow comes from the reverse
direction, the diaphragms remain
closed.
Check valves applications
• Check valves are often used with some types of pumps
like the feed pumps or injectors which supply water to
steam boilers are fitted with check valves to prevent
back-flow. & the firefighting booster pumps to keep the
pressure behind the pump high all the time. In Industrial
processes Check valves are used in many fluid systems
such as those in chemical and power plants, and in many
other industrial processes.
Safety valves
• A safety valve or sometimes called Relive valve is a
device which allows liquids or gases to escape from a pipe
, tank, steam boiler or vessels… etc. when the pressure
inside it becomes too high. Safety valves were first
developed for use on steam boilers during the Industrial
Revolution.
• Vacuum safety valves (or combined pressure/vacuum
safety valves) are used to prevent a tank from collapsing
while it is being emptied. This type is normally used in
the oil storage tanks. The pressure normalized to positive
pressure by using natural gas taken from the plant. .
• There is a wide range of safety valves available to meet
many different applications and performance criteria
requirements by different industries. Furthermore,
national standards define many varying types of safety
valve. Some of The safety valve can be adjusted or
calibrated to a certain pressure. There are special tools to
do this type of calibration & test.
• It is very important to check the safety valves
periodically to prevent any damages or explosion in the
equipment's especially in the high pressure vessels.
.

Safety valve
Safety valve composition
 Vacuum/pressure valve or breather valve
Direct acting pressure / vacuum relief valves (also known as breather valves, •
conservation vents, or safety vents) are low pressure devices specifically
designed to protect tanks, process systems and equipment from excessive
pressure and vacuum.
As well as providing the primary layer of protection for tanks and process •
systems, pressure/vacuum valves also minimize emission losses of gases or
vapors, thus protecting the environment and providing significant financial
savings.
The range includes pressure only, vacuum only and combined •
pressure/vacuum valves, all available with flanged outlets or vented to
atmosphere.
Pressure / vacuum relief valves are used extensively on bulk storage tanks, •
to minimize evaporation loss. The valves prevent the buildup of excessive
pressure or vacuum which can unbalance the system or damage the storage
vessel.
Gas pressure regulator used for oil
storage tanks (tank blanking)
Valves symbols
 Speed transducers
Speed sensors or transducer is magnetic pickups, noncontact signal
generators that convert mechanical motion into alternating current without
mechanical linkage. There are many types. For example a wheel speed sensor
or vehicle speed sensor (VSS) is a type of tachometer. It is a sender device used
for reading the speed of a vehicle's wheel rotation. It usually consists of a
toothed ring and pickup.
A magnetic pickup is essentially a coil wound around a permanently
magnetized probe. When discrete ferromagnetic objects—such as gear teeth,
turbine rotor blades, slotted discs, or shafts with keyways—are passed through
the probe's magnetic field, the flux density is modulated. This induces AC
voltages in the coil. One complete cycle of voltage is generated for each object
passed.
If the objects are evenly spaced on a rotating shaft, the total number of •
cycles will be a measure of the total rotation, and the frequency of the AC
voltage will be directly proportional to the rotational speed of the turbine.
Speed sensor principle

Steam turbine speed control

 Vibration
• Vibration is study of oscillatory motions. The final goals of this study
are to determine the effect of vibration on the performance and safety
of systems, and to control its effects by finding solutions. Taken in
consideration of system safety & high performance machines and
environmental control, this study has become a part of most
engineering study. There many types of vibrations.
• A- Free vibration; as hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring or
pulling a child back on a swing and letting it go.
• B- Forced vibration; like a washing machine shaking due to an
imbalance. There is a frequency & displacement of such vibration
which depends on how much the imbalanced Wight & speed.
• C- Damped vibration; when the energy of a vibrating
system is gradually dissipated by friction and other
resistances, the vibrations are said to be damped. The
vibrations gradually reduce or change in frequency or
intensity or cease and the system rests in its equilibrium
position. An example of this type of vibration is the
vehicular suspension dampened by the shock absorber.
• What we interested with is the second type which is the
Forced vibration. That what happens in centrifugal
pumps, water feed pumps, various types of turbine.
• Turbines vibration; could be several causes vibration (for gas
turbine) like
• 1- Grouting problem & Foundation Bolts.
• 2- Casing bolts loos or broken & misalignment.
• 3- Turbine bearing wear tear due to lubrication failure.
• 4- Irregular burning due to air fuel ratio
• 5- Turbine & compressor rotor blades damage.
• 6- due to generator load variation & turbine run at over speed
• 7- Rotor bends or Bow.
• 8- Rotor balancing issue.
Steam turbine rotor vibration failure Turbine shaft damage due to vibration problem
Pumps vibration
• Pump vibration is frequently caused by Process or mechanical causes like
unbalanced pumps or misaligned shafts. Vibration has a major effect on
deteriorating the performance of process pumps. Some of the vibration
effects on the centrifugal pumps are listed below:

• 1- Shorten the life of the mechanical seal.

• 2- Damage the packing. Packing is sensitive to radial movement of the shaft.

• 3- Damage the bearings, wear rings, bushings and impellers.

• 4- Wear ring clearance and impeller setting will be affected by vibration.

• 5- Pump and motor hold down bolts can become loose.

Bearing & shaft damage due to
lube oil System malfunctioned
•
.
Due to the high cost of that machines & maintenance there is a
vibration monitoring systems developed to monitor any abnormal
vibration and gives alarm. This system in composed of two parts. The
first one is the probes fixed on various places on the turbine shaft or
pump Shaft that insures measuring Vibration High.
• The shaft vibration monitoring systems measure X-Y directions per
bearing of turbine generator.
• The alarm will be activated when high value of X-Y direction signals
over alarm value settings
• Turbine trip will be occurred only when more than one probe measures
over trip value and the other probe installed at next bearing measures
over alarm value.
 Vibration transducers
• Vibration transducers is an accelerometer device that measures the
vibration, or acceleration of motion of a structure. The force caused by
vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass to "squeeze"
the piezoelectric material which produces an electrical charge that is
proportional to the force exerted upon it. Since the charge is proportional to
the force, and the mass is a constant, then the charge is also proportional to
the acceleration.

• There are two types of piezoelectric accelerometers (vibration sensors). The

first type is a "high impedance" charge output accelerometer. In this type of
accelerometer the piezoelectric crystal produces an electrical charge which is
connected directly to the measurement instruments. This type of
accelerometer is used in high temperature applications (>120C) where low
impedance models cannot be used.

• The second type of accelerometer is a low impedance output accelerometer. A

low impedance accelerometer has a charge accelerometer as its front end but
has a tiny built-in micro-circuit and FET transistor that converts that
charge into a low impedance voltage that can easily interface with standard
instrumentation.
 Air system: Air compressors
• One of the most important, and often overlooked pieces
of heavy equipment used in the industrial facilities are
compressed air systems. Compressed air has been used in
mining and construction since a long time. From creating
fires hot enough to forge metal with bellows to providing
ventilation to miners working deep below Earth’s surface,
compressed air has long been an important source. While
many of the large parts of industrial equipment such as
excavators, , concrete vibrators, pneumatic hoists and
some conveyors & other tools for bolting, nailing, drilling,
depends on compressed air there are other uses for it in
the industry. Many essential equipment's in power plants
oil refineries & oil fields, water treatment plants. All the
previous equipment's are depend on clean, pressurized
air flow which are supplied by air compressors.
• Sobriefly the air compressor is a device that converts power
.
(using an electric motor, diesel or gasoline engine, etc.) into
potential energy stored in pressurized air or compressed air.
By one of several methods, an air compressor forces more
and more air into a storage tank, increasing the pressure.
When tank pressure reaches its engineered upper limit the
air compressor shuts off by a high pressure switch. The
compressed air, then, is held in the tank until called into
use. The energy contained in the compressed air can be used
for a variety of applications, utilizing the stored energy of
the air as it is released and the tank depressurizes. When
tank pressure reaches its lower limit, the air compressor
turns on again by low pressure switch and re-pressurizes the
tank again.
Industrial air compressor
Instrument air specifications
• 1- The instrument air shall be free of all corrosive contaminants and
hazardous gases, flammable or toxic which may be drawn into the
instrument air system. If contamination exists in the compressor intake
area, the air should be taken from an elevation or remote location free
from contamination or proceed to remove such contamination. Any cross
connection or process connection to the instrument air piping shall be
isolated to preclude contamination of the air system. A regular periodic
check should be made to ensure high quality instrument air.
2- Compressed air “free from oil & dust” is a requirement in •
instrumentation applications environment. The maximum total oil or
hydrocarbon content, exclusive of non-condensable shall be not more than
0.005 mg/Nm3. Concentration at what pressure and temperature is to be
specified.

3- Air Pressure for Instruments supply pressure shall be as per requirement •

from 0 to 200 PSI.
Pressure Regulators
Pressure Regulator /Pressure Reducing Valve (PRV) are automatically •
reduces a higher inlet pressure to a steady lower downstream pressure,
regardless of changing flow rate and/or varying inlet pressure. Generally
used in boilers and compressed air systems like control valves, pneumatic
control actuators, mechanical tools…etc. they have a self-actuating
mechanism which activates due to increase in pressure. This valves are
often confused with the relief valves, which are used for a totally different
purpose. A relief valve comes to rescue when the pressure of a system rises
above a set limit. Thus relief valves work only when the pressure reaches
the highest point or the set pressure

Unlike relief valves, pressure reducing valves are used to maintain the •
pressure of a system at an optimum level. These valves are subjected to a
minor change in the pressure level, thus allowing to maintain an
equilibrium pressure in the system.
High pressure Regulator Single stage pressure regulator
Air filter regulator & lubricator
Thank You