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HIV life cycle and antiretroviral drug targets
Klasifikasi ART Drugs
• Nucleo(t)side Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
(NRTIs)
• Nonnucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
(NNRTIs)
• Protease Inhibitors (PIs)
• Entry Inhibitors - Chemokine (CCR5) co-receptor
antagonist
• Fusion Inhibitors
• Integrase Inhibitors (HIV integrase strand transfer
inhibitors)
Nucleo(t)side Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs)
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MOA of NRTIs
Pharmacokinetics
• NRTIs are prodrugs and undergoes phosphorylation by
intracellular kinases to exert their activity.
• Oral bioavailability ranges from 25%-93%, with tenofovir and
didanosine on lower end of spectrum.
• Food does not significantly affect absorption
• Except didanosine, which must be taken on empty stomach
• Renal elimination
• Exception is abacavir, given at normal dose regardless of
creatinine clearance.
• Minimal drug-drug interactions occur.
• Clinically significant Interactions involve didanosine.
• With tenofovir, didanosine levels are higher than expected,
• Didanosine and ribavirin combination should be avoided.
Name Dosage Form(s) Adult Dose Adverse Events
Didanosine 125-mg, 200-mg, >60 kg: 400 mg PO qd Peripheral neuropathy, pancreatitis, nausea,
250-mg, 400-mg < 60 kg: 250 mg PO qd lactic acidosis
enteric-coated Take 30 min ac or 2 hr pc
capsule; Oral solution: Divide
10-mg/mL daily dose bid
suspension
Stavudine 15-mg, 20-mg, 30-mg, >60 kg: 40 mg PO Peripheral neuropathy, pancreatitis, lactic
40-mg capsule; bid acidosis, lipoatrophy, hyperlipidemia
1-mg/mL oral solution < 60 kg: 30 mg PO
bid
Zidovudine 300-mg tablet; 100-mg 300 mg PO bid or Nausea, vomiting, headache, asthenia,
capsule;10-mg/mL oral 200 mg PO tid Anemia, granulocytopenia, myopathy, lactic
solution;10-mg/mL acidosis, hepatomegaly with steatosis, nail
intravenous solution pigmentation, lipid abnormalities, lipoatrophy,
hyperglycemia
Nonnucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
(NNRTIs)
Darunavir 75-mg, 150-mg, 300- 800 mg qd + ritonavir 100 mg PO Rash, nausea, diarrhea,
mg, 400-mg, 600-mg qd or 600 mg bid + ritonavir 100 hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia
tablets mg PO bid
Fosamprenavir 700-mg tab; 700 mg bid + ritonavir 100 mg PO Rash, nausea, vomiting,
bid or 1400 mg PO bid or 1400 mg diarrhea, hyperlipidemia,
50-mg/mL oral sus.
+ ritonavir 100-200 mg PO qd hyperglycemia
Sus.: Take without food
with RTV: Take with food
Nelfinavir 250-mg, 625-mg tablets, 1250 mg PO bid or 750 mg PO tid Diarrhea, hyperlipidemia,
50 mg/g oral powder (cannot be boosted) Take with food hyperglycemia
Ritonavir 100-mg tablet; 100-mg Boosting dose for other PIs: 100-400 mg/d Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, asthenia,
soft gelatin capsule; Nonboosting dose 600 mg bid hyperlipidemia, oral paresthesias,
80-mg/mL oral solution hyperglycemia
Saquinavir 500-mg tablet; 1000 mg + ritonavir 100 mg PO bid Nausea, diarrhea, headache,
200-mg hard gelatin Unboosted not recommended hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia, PR
capsule Take with food, or within 2 h pc and QT interval prolongation
Tipranavir 250-mg soft gelatin 500 mg + ritonavir 200 mg PO bid Hepatotoxicity, rash, hyperlipidemia,
capsule Unboosted not recommended hyperglycemia, intracranial
100-mg/mL oral solution hemorrhage
Entry Inhibitors - Chemokine
(CCR5) co-receptor antagonist
• Maraviroc
• Binding of gp120 HIV surface protein to CD4 receptor induces
a structural change that reveals V3 loop of the protein.
• V3 loop then binds with a chemokine coreceptor (principally
either CCR5 or CXCR4), allowing gp41 to insert itself into the
host cell and leading to fusion of the cell membranes.
• Maraviroc selectively and reversibly binds CCR5
coreceptor, blocking V3 loop interaction and inhibiting fusion
of cellular membranes.
– As some viral strains may use an alternate co-receptor CXCR4 for
entry,
– a tropism assay is necessary to confirm that patient’s virus only uses
CCR5 for entry.
• Pharmacokinetics
• 75% protein-bound, primarily to albumin and alpha1acid
glycoprotein.
• Terminal half-life is 15-30 hours.
• Metabolized through CYP3A4 and is a substrate for efflux
pump p-glycoprotein.
• Dosage adjustment is required when administered in
combination with potent inhibitors or inducers of CYP3A4300
mg PO bid
• Dose
150 mg PO bid (CYP3A4 inhibitors ± inducers)
600 mg PO bid (CYP3A4 inducers)
• ADRs
– Constipation, dizziness, cough, Pyrexia, Upper respiratory tract
infections, Rash, Musculoskeletal symptoms, Abdominal pain,
Hepatotoxicity, nasopharyngitis
Fusion Inhibitors
• Enfuvirtide,
• Act extracellularly to prevent fusion of HIV to CD4 or other
target cell.
• Blocks second step in fusion pathway by binding to HR1 region
of gp41.
• Does not allow HR1 and HR2 to fold properly,
• Thus preventing conformational change of gp41 required to
complete final step in fusion process
• Dose 90 mg SC bid
• Dose adjustments are not required in patients with renal
insufficiency or mild-to-moderate hepatic insufficiency
• ADRs Injection-site reactions
(eg, pain, erythema, induration, nodules)
diarrhea, nausea, fatigue, hypersensitivity reactions, increased
rate of bacterial pneumonia
Integrase Inhibitors (HIV integrase strand
transfer inhibitors)
• HIV integrase
• Responsible for transport and attachment of proviral DNA to host-cell
chromosomes, allowing transcription of viral proteins and subsequent
assembly of virus particles.
• Proviral integration involves 2 catalytic reactions:
• 3'-processing in host-cell cytoplasm to prepare proviral strands for attachment
• Strand transfer whereby proviral DNA is covalently linked to cellular DNA
• IIs Competitively inhibit strand transfer reaction by binding metallic ions in
active site.
• Raltegravir & Elvitegravir
• Dolutegravir
– Newest integrase inhibitor, is now in very advanced clinical trials, withapproval
expected towards the end of 2013.
– once-a-day medication, can be taken separately.
– doesn't require a booster
– appears to work against virus that is resistant to raltegravir and/orelvitegravir.
Pharmacokinetics
Raltegravir
• Rapid absorption, taken with or without food. half-life of 10-12 hours
• Longer half-life in women,
• 83% bound to plasma proteins
• Metabolized by uridine diphosphate glucuronyl transferase
• Other antiretroviral agents may alter metabolism
• Antacids may decrease absorption by divalent cation binding,
Elvitegravir
• administered with low-dose ritonavir (100 mg) to reduce its first-pass
metabolism and systemic clearance.
• Coadministration results in a 20-fold increase in systemic exposure and a
terminal half-life of 10-13 hours.
• metabolized through CYP3A4 and UGT1A1/UGT1A3.
• Drug-drug interactions with other medications are likely because of
ritonavir
• Antacids may decrease absorption
Name Dosage Form(s) Adult Dose Adverse Events
Combination Name
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Goals of Antiretroviral Therapy
Decreased selection of
resistant virus
DHHS ART Guidelines
Therapy should be initiated in following patient :
• ART should be initiated in all patients with a history of
an AIDS-defining illness or with a CD4 count <350
cells/mm3 (AI).
• ART should also be initiated, regardless of CD4 count,
in patients with the following conditions:
– Pregnancy (AI), to prevent perinatal transmission
– HIV- associated nephropathy (AII),
– Active TB
– Hepatitis B virus (HBV) coinfection when treatment of HBV
is indicated (AIII).
Therapy options
Standard ART consists of 2 NRTIs in combination with an
NNRTI, PI, or integrase inhibitor.
• Immunologic Failure:
– The CD4 cell count persistently falls below the baseline CD4 cell count
– The CD4 cell count fails to increase by more than 25-50 cells/μL after
one year of treatment
– There is a > 50% decline in CD4 cell count from its highest level on ART
• Clinical Failure:
– when the patient has a new AIDS-defining illness—i.e., a new WHO
stage 3 or 4 condition--after initiation of ART
Clinical Indications to Change ART
Due to Toxicity
Symptom Clinical Indication
Nausea Severe discomfort or minimal intake for > 3 days
Vomiting Severe vomiting of all foods/fluids in 24 hrs, orthostatic
hypotension or need of IV fluids
Diarrhea Bloody diarrhea, orthostatic hypotension or need of IV
fluids
Fever Unexplained fever of > 39.6 C
Headache Severe or requires narcotics
Allergic Generalized urticaria, angioedema or anaphylaxis
Reaction
Peripheral Severe discomfort, objective weakness, loss of 2-3
Neuropathy previously present reflexes or sensory dermatomes
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Fatigue Normal activity reduced > 50%
Lab Indications to Change ART Due to Toxicity
Grade 3 Normal Reference
Parameter
Toxicity Values
Hemoglobin (Hgb) < 7.0 g/dL M: 13.8 – 17.2 g/dL
F: 12 – 15.6 g/dL
Hematology *ANC < 750/mm3 1500 to 7000/mm3
Platelet count < 49 x 103/µL 130-400 x 103/µL
Total Bilirubin > 3-7.5 x ULN*= ≤ 1.3 mg/dL
3.9-9.75mg/dL
Chemistries
SCr > 1.7-2.0 (adult) ≤ 1.2 mg/dL
Pancreatic Amylase, Lipase > 2-3 x ULN* 23-85 U/L, 0-160 U/L
Enzymes
Triglyceride (TG) 8.49- 13.56 < 200 mg/dL
Lipids mmol/L
Cholesterol 1.6-2.0 X ULN < 200 mg/dL
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* ULN = Upper Limit of Normal *ANC= Absolute neutrophil count
Serious Adverse Effects of NRTIs
• All NRTIs** • Anemia
– Zidovudine (AZT, ZDV)
– Lactic acidosis/fatty
• Pancreatitis*
liver*
– didanosine (ddI)
– Lipoatrophy (loss of
• Neuropathy
subcutaneous fat) – didanosine (ddI)
– stavudine (d4T)
*Potentially life-threatening
**d4T > ddI, AZT > ABC, TDF, 3TC
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Serious Adverse Effects of NNRTIs
– nevirapine
*Potentially life-threatening
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Serious Adverse Effects of PIs
• All PIs
– Liver toxicity*
*Potentially life-threatening
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LIPODYSTROPHY SYNDROME
• Main clinical features are peripheral fat loss, central
fat accumulation, gyneacomastia, buffalo hump
and other peripheral lipomatosis.
PIs
NRTIs
d4T>ZDV
– Restorative surgery
– Regimen change: PIs to NNRTIs or ABC
Lactic Acidosis/Hepatic Steatosis
– Lab.
• Elevated venous lactic acid
• Surrogate markers include elevated creatinine
phosphokinase (CPK), lactate dehydrogenase
(LDH), amylase or aspartate aminotransferase
(AST), increase anion gap (>16), CT, US, biopsy showing
liver steatosis
• Rx
– Lactic acid <5mmol/L may not require
– Therapeutic switch : D4T, ddl, or AZT to ABC,3TC or
TDF may be reasonable
– Supportive measures: hydration, mitochondrial
ventilation and dialysis
• Screening:
– RBG, FBG and HbA1c after 2-3 mo of the start of PI
base regimen
• Risk:
– Risk of atherosclerosis
Insulin Resistance
• Rx
– STD RX of type II DM and exercise
– The two major classes of agents are insulin secretagogues
(sulunylureas ) and insulin sensitizing agents ( metformin and
thiazolidinediones / glitazones)
– Metformin and glitazones have the potential advantage of
improving insulin resistance and decreasing visceral fat
accumulation
– FBC:
• AZT-based ART: at 4 and 12 weeks post-initiation, then
annually only, and as clinically indicated
• If not on AZT-based ART: annually only, and as clinically
indicated
• AST/ALT:
– NVP-based ART: 2, 4, and 12 weeks post-initiation, thereafter only as
clinically indicated
– EFV-based ART: 4 and 12 weeks post-initiation, thereafter only as
clinically indicated
– PI-based ART: only as clinically indicated
• Glucose and total cholesterol/triglycerides annually only if on PI-
based ART
• Creatinine and creatinine clearance : 3 and 6 months post-initiation
and then, if stable, every 6 months (TDF only)
• RPR (rapid plasma reagin )or VDRL test: after baseline, only as
indicated
Principles of HIV Drug Resistance
• Results from changes (mutations) in genetic information in
virus
• These changes occur whenever HIV is replicating
• Partial HIV suppression promotes resistance
• Resistance can be delayed by suppressing virus completely
• RT and protease are flexible (highly mutable)
• Resistance may fade but not disappear when a drug is stopped
• Some mutations allow certain viruses to resist effects of one or
more antiretroviral drugs
• Drug resistant virus usually grows faster and better than drug
susceptible virus
• Drug resistant virus replaces drug susceptible virus in patient
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Resistance Testing
• Two types:
– Genotyping
Detects drug resistance mutations on virus genome
that may make it resistant to certain antiretrovirals
• Less expensive
• Can usually be completed in 1-2 weeks
– Phenotyping
Measure ability of viruses to grow in presence of
various concentrations of antiretroviral drugs
• More expensive
• Generally takes 2-3 weeks to complete
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Resistance Mutations
• For some drugs (NNRTIs and 3TC), a single mutation
causes high-level resistance.
– Resistance to these drugs occurs very quickly
• For other drugs (most NRTIs and PIs), many mutations
must occur before high-level resistance is observed.
– Resistance to these drugs occurs more slowly
Cross-Resistance
• Resistance to one drug can cause resistance to others
of the same class
– NNRTI: complete cross-class resistance
– NRTI: partial cross-class resistance
– PI: partial cross-class resistance
• Partly overcome by ritonavir boosting
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Minimize Emergence of Viral Resistance
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