The Nature of Probability and

Statistics
Prepared by:
Engr. Cynthia V. Plaza
ECE Department
Objectives: At the end of the course, learners
should able to
• Demonstrate knowledge of statistical terms
• Differentiate between the two branches of statistics
• Identify types of data
• Identify the measurement level for each variable
• Identify the four basic sampling techniques
• Explain the difference between an observational
and an experimental study
• Explain how statistics can be used and misused
Introduction
• Statistics is used in almost all fields of human
endeavor
• Statistics is used to analyze the results of
surveys and as a tool in scientific research to
make decisions based on controlled
experiments
• Include operations research, quality control,
estimation, and predictions
Statistics is the science of conducting studies
to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and
draw conclusions from data
• Introduces basic concepts of probability
and statistics by answering the following
questions
– What are the branches of statistics?
– What are data?
– How are samples selected?
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
• Variable is a characteristics or attribute that can
assume different values
• Data are values (measurements or observations)
that are variables can assume
• Random variables are variables whose values are
determined by chance
• Date set are collected data values
• Datum or data value describes each value in a
data set
Two areas in Statistics
1. Descriptive statistics consists of the collection,
organization, summarization, and presentation of
data.
2. Inferential statistics consists of generalizing from
samples to populations, performing estimations and
hypothesis tests, determining relationships among
variables, and making predictions
 A population consists of all subjects that are being
studied
 A sample is a group of subjects selected from a
population
Variables and Types of Data
• Qualitative variables are variables that can be
placed into distinct categories, according to
some characteristic or attribute.
– E.g. (gender, religious preference, geographic
locations, and etc.)
• Quantitative variables are numerical and can
be ordered or ranked
– E.g. (age, heights, weights, body temperature, and
etc.)
Table 1-1 Recorded Values and Boundaries
Variables Recorded value Boundaries

Length 15 centimeters (cm) 14.5 – 15.5 , cm

Temperature 86 degrees in ᵒF 85.5 – 86.5, ᵒF

Time 0.43 second (sec) 0.425 – 0.435, sec

Mass 1.6 grams (g) 1.55 – 1.65, g

Types of Measurement Scales
1. Nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually
exclusive exhausting categories in which no order or ranking
can be imposed on the data
2. Ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories
that can be ranked, however, precise differences between
the ranks do not exist
3. Interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise
differences between units of measure do exist; however,
there is no meaningful zero
4. Ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics
of interval measurement, and these exists a true zero. In
addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is
measured on two different members of the population
Table 1-2 Examples of Measurement Scales
Interval level Ratio level
Nominal level data Ordinal level data data data

Zip code
Gender (male, female) Grade (A, B, C, D, F)
Eye color (blue, brown, Height
Judging (first place,
green, hazel) Weight
second place, etc.) SAT score
Political affiliation Time
Rating scale ( poor, IQ
Major field Salary
goof, excellent) Temperature
(mathematics, Age
Ranking of tennis
computers, etc.) players
Nationality
Data Collections and Sampling Techniques
Data can be collected in a variety of ways. One
of the most common methods is through the
use of surveys. Surveys can be done in the
following
 Telephone surveys
 Mailed questionnaire surveys
 Personal interview surveys
 Surveying records or direct observation of
situations
Table 1-3 Summary of Sampling Methods
Random Subjects are selected by random numbers
Subjects are selected by using every kth
Systematic number after first subject is randomly
selected from 1 through k
Subjects are selected by dividing up the
population into groups (strata), and
Stratified subjects within groups are randomly
selected
Subjects are selected by using an intact
Cluster group that is representative of the
population
Two types of studies: Observational studies
and Experimental studies

• In an Observational study, the researcher

merely observes what is happening or what
has happened in the past and tries to draw
conclusions based on these observations
• In an Experimental study, the researcher
manipulates one of the variables and tries to
determine how the manipulation influences
other variables
Statistical studies usually include one or
more independent variables and one
dependent variable
The independent variable in an experimental study is
the one that is being manipulated by the researcher.
The independent variable is also called the
explanatory variable. The resultant variable is called
the dependent variable or the outcome variable.
A confounding variable is one that influence the
dependent or outcome variable but cannot be
separated from the independent variable
Uses and Misuses of Statistics
1. Suspect Samples – when results are interpreted
from small samples, care should be used in
generalizing the results to the entire population
2. Ambiguous Averages – uses measures called
averages. They are the mean, median, mode and
midrange. For the same data set, these averages
can differ markedly.
3. Changing the Subject – occurs when different
values are used to represent the same data
4. Detached Statics – a claim that uses a detached
statistics is one in which no comparison is made
Uses and Misuses of Statistics
5. Implied Connections – claims that attempt to imply
connections between variables that may not actually
exist
6. Misleading Graphs – use of statistical graphs to give
visual representation of data that enables viewers to
analyze and interpret data more easily than by simply
looking at numbers
7. Faulty Survey Questions – when analyzing results of a
survey using a questionnaires, it should be that the
questions are properly written since the way questions
are phrased can often influence the way people answer
them