Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Regina C. Talavera MD
Embryology
1. Prophase
2. Prometaphase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
Mitosis - Prophase
chromosomes begin
to coil, contract and
condense
becoming shorter
and thicker
each consists of 2
chromatids, which
are joined at the
centromere
Mitosis - Prometaphase
chromatids become
distinguishable
Mitosis - Metaphase
chromosomes line
up in the equatorial
plane
each attached by
mitotic spindles or
microtubules
Mitosis - Anaphase
centromeres of
each chromosome
divide
migration of the
chromatids to
opposite poles of
the spindle
Mitosis - Telophase
chromosomes
uncoil and lengthen
nuclear envelope
reforms
division of the
cytoplasm
Mitosis
Anaphase
each daughter cell
contains 1 member
of the chromosome
pair
Meiosis – 2nd Division
• noDNA synthesis
occurs prior to this
stage
• the 23 double-
stranded chromosomes
divide at the
centromere and each
receives 23 chromatids
Meiosis – Result
1 primary oocyte
gives rise to 4
daughter cells = 1
mature oocyte + 3
polar bodies
22 + 1X
chromosome
Meiosis – Result
primary spermatocyte
gives rise to 4
daughter cells which
develop into 4 mature
gametes
2 = 22 + 1X
chromosome
2 = 22 + 1Y
chromosome
Clinical Correlates
1. Meiotic Nondisjunction
no separation occurs
1 cell receives 24 chromosomes and the
other 22
At fertilization, normal gamete of 23 fuses
with abnormal gamete producing either
monosomy 45 or
trisomy 47
Clinical Correlates
2. Mitotic Nondisjunction
involves chromosome 21 (Down
Syndrome)
Mosaicism – few or many
characteristics of Down Syndrome
depending on the # of cells involved
Clinical Correlates
3. Balanced Translocation
breakage and reunion of chromosomes
between 2 chromosomes
no critical genetic material is lost
normal individual
4. Unbalanced Translocation
part of 1 chromosome is lost
Spermatogonia
(shortly before puberty, sex cords acquire a lumen=
seminiferous tubules)
Type A Type B
Primary Spermatocyte
meiosis I
Secondary Spermatocyte
meiosis II
Spermatid (haploid)
spermiogenesis
Spermatozoa
Spermiogenesis
series of changes
resulting in the
transformation of
spermatids into
spermatozoa
1. Formation of the
acrosome
2. Condensation of the
nucleus
3. Formation of neck, middle
piece and tail
4. Shedding of most of the
cytoplasm
Oogenesis
process wherein the female germ cell
develops into maturity
Each ovarian cycle produces a # of follicles
but only 1 develops into maturity, the others
degenerate and become atretic.
2nd meiotic division completed only if
fertilization takes place, otherwise,
degeneration occurs approximately 24 hours
after ovulation
Ovulation – secondary oocyte in metaphase
Oogenesis – Prenatal Maturation
Female Primordial Germ Cell
Oogonia
mitosis
Follicular Cells
mitosis
Primary Oocyte
meiosis
Primordial Follicle
Oogenesis – Postnatal Maturation
Primary Oocyte
-near time of birth = 700T-2M
-starts prophase of the 1st meiotic division
Primary Follicle
Oogenesis – Postnatal Maturation
Primary Follicle
(theca folliculi, zona pellucida)
Secondary Follicle
(antrum, cumulus oopherus)
Tertiary Follicle
= Vesicular or Graaffian Follicle
meiosis I
Secondary Oocyte
+ 1 Polar Body
Ovarian Cycle
= sexual cycle
regular monthly cycles of females at
puberty
controlled by the hypothalamus
(gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
anterior pituitary gland (gonadotropins
= LH and FSH) stimulate and control
the cyclic changes in the ovary
Estrogen
Stigma
- an avascular spot at the apex of the ovary
- point of rupture of the oocyte during
ovulation
- due to:
Signs of Ovulation:
1. Middle pain or Mittlesmerz
2. Rise in basal body temperature
3. Thinning of the cervical mucus
Ovulation
B. Acrosome Reaction
- occurs after binding of the sperm to the zona
pellucida of the oocyte
- induced by the zona proteins
- culminates in the release of lysosomal enzymes
(including acrosin and trypsin-like subs.) needed in the
penetration of the zona pellucida (zona reaction)
Phases of Fertilization
Phase I
Penetration of the Corona Radiata
Phase II
Penetration of the Zona Pellucida
Phase III
Fusion of the Oocyte and Sperm Cell
Membrane
3. Initiation of cleavage
Clinical Correlates
Methods of Contraception:
1. barrier techniques – condoms,
diaphragm
2. oral contraceptives or pills
3. Depo-provera – subdermal implant or
intramuscular injection
4. IUDs
5. Vasectomy or tubal ligation
Clinical Correlates
2-cell stage
mitosis
Blastomeres
(increase in cell number)
8-cell stage
16-cell stage
(morula)
Cleavage
Morula
(In the uterine cavity
3 days after fertilization)
blastocyst
embryoblast trophoblast
6th day
implantation
Implantation
blastocyst
embryoblast trophoblast
6th day
implantation
Trophoblast
1. Cytotrophoblast – inner,
mononucleated
2. Syncytiotrophoblast – outer,
multinucleated
Embryoblast
- Exocoelomic or
Heuser’s membrane
- Exocoelomic Cavity
= Primitive Yolk Sac
Uteroplacental Circulation
sinusoid (maternal capillaries) eroded by the deep
penetration of the syncytiotrophoblast into the
endometrial stroma
establishes maternal blood flow to the embryo
13th Day AOG
bleeding may occur at the implantation site
due to increase blood flow into the lacunar
spaces
occurs near the 28th day of the menstrual
cycle thus confused with menses
connecting stalk – only place where the
extraembryonic mesoderm traverses the
chorionic cavity becomes the umbilical
cord as it develops blood vessels
Clinical Correlates
hCG = human chorionic gonadotropin
- produced by the syncytiotrophoblast
- detected by end of the 2nd week of gestation via
RIA (pregnancy test)
Ectopic Pregnancy
- extrauterine pregnancy
Hydatidiform mole
- trophoblast develops placental membrane
but little or no embryonic tissue
- benign or malignant (invasive mole,
choriocarcinoma)
- arise from fertilization of an oocyte lacking
in nucleus followed by duplication of the
male chromosome to restore the diploid #
- suggests that paternal genes regulate most
of the development of the trophoblast
Gastrulation
process of establishing the 3 germ layers
in the embryo
starts with the formation of the primitive
streak on the surface of the epiblast
(source of all the germ layers of the
embryo – ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm)
highly sensitive stage for teratogenic
insults
Primitive Streak
visible by Day 15-
16 of development
primitive node
primitive pit
Notochord
Ethanol
kills cells in the antero-midline of the
germ disc
deficiency of midline craniofacial
structures
eg. holoprocencephaly
Clinical Correlates
Serenomelia
= Caudal Dysgenesis
due to insufficient
mesoderm formed in
the caudalmost region
of the embryo
contributes to lower
limbs, urogenital
system & lumbosacral
vertebrae
risk factor- maternal
diabetes mellitus
Clinical Correlates
Sacrococcygeal Teratoma
remnants of the
primitive streak
persists in the
sacrococcygeal area
contains tissues
derived from the 3
germ layers
most common tumor in
the newborn
Development of the Trophoblast
Primary villi
Secondary villi
Tertiary villi
= definitive placental villus
-differentiation of core into
blood cells & small vessels
forming the villous capillary sys
-establish contact with the
intraembryonic circulatory sys
connecting placenta & the embryo
Development of the Trophoblast
Umbilical Cord
establishes attachment between the
embryo and the placenta as a narrow
connecting stalk at its trophoblastic
shell on Day 19-20 of development
Embryonic Period
Paraaxial Mesoderm
Lateral Plate – divided into 2 layers:
1. somatic or parietal mesoderm – lateral &
ventral body wall
2. splanchnic or visceral mesoderm – wall of
the gut
Intermediate Mesoderm – forms the excretory
units of the urinary system & the gonads
1. nephrotomes – cervical & upper thoracic
regions
2. nephrogenic cord – caudal regions
Somitomeres
segments formed by the organization of the
paraaxial mesoderm
– head region = neuromeres
– occipital region caudally = somites
42 – 44 pairs by the 5th week of development
develops in a cephalocaudal sequence
4 occipital + 7 cervical + 12 thoracic + 5 lumbar + 5
sacral + 8-10 coccygeal
1st occipital + last 5-7 coccygeal somites disappear &
the remaining somites forms the axial skeleton
Somitomeres forms the:
forces the blood deep into the intervillous spaces with oxygenated blood
pressure decreases & blood flows back from the chorionic plate
toward the decidua where it enters the endometrial veins
Functions of the Placenta
1. exchange of gases
2. exchange of nutrients & electrolytes
3. transmission of maternal antibodies
4. hormone production
5. protective barrier against damaging
factors
6. detoxification of some drugs
Functions of the Placenta
Gas Exchange
- simple diffusion = O2, CO2 and CO
- at term, fetus extracts 20-30 ml
O2/min from the maternal circulation
- the amount of O2 reaching the fetus is
primarily dependent on placental
blood flow and not diffusion
Functions of the Placenta
Protective Barrier
- viruses which traverse the placenta
without difficulty = rubella (measles),
rubeola (German measles), variola
(smallpox), varicella (chickenpox),
coxsackie, CMV, poliomyelitis
Detoxification of Some Drugs
- fetal drug addiction = heroin
Umbilical Cord
2 arteries and 1 vein
Physiologic umbilical hernia – the abdominal
cavity is temporarily too small for the rapidly
developing intestinal loops and some are pushed
into the extraembryonic coelomic space in the
umbilical cord
Jelly of Wharton – proteoglycan-rich subs.
which surrounds the umbilical cord & serves as a
protective layer to the blood vessels
approx. 2 cm diameter & 50-60 cm long, tortous
– extremely long cord coil fetal asphyxia
– short difficult attachment of the placenta
Amniotic Bands
due to tears in the amion
scar-like tissue
constricting part of the
fetus (limbs or digits)
origin of the bands is
probably infections or
toxic insults that involve
either the fetus, fetal
membrane or both
may result in :
amputations, ring
constrictions, craniofacial
deformities
Placental Changes at the End of
Pregnancy (indicates reduce
exchange)
1. increase fibrin tissue in the core of the
villus
2. increase thickness of the basement
membrane in the fetal capillaries
3. obliterative changes in small capillaries
of the villi
4. deposition of fibrinoid on the surface of
the villi in the junctional zone & in the
chorionic plate
Amniotic Fluid
clear, watery fluid produced by amniotic
cells
derived primarily from maternal blood
amount increases as pregnancy
advances
– 30 ml = 10 wks AOG
– 350 ml = 20 wks AOG
– 800-1000 ml = 37 wks AOG
Amniotic Fluid
volume is replaces every 3 hours
by 5th month AOG – fetus swallows
approx. 400 ml/day
fetal urine – mostly water – added daily to
the amniotic fluid (since placenta functions
as an exchange of metabolic wastes)
during labor, amniochorionic membrane
forms a hydrostatic wedge that helps
dilate the cervical os
Functions of the Amniotic
Fluid
1. absorbs jolt
2. prevents adherence of the embryo to
the amnion
3. allows for fetal movement
Clinical Correlates
Premature Rupture of Membranes (PROM)
- may cause infection- both mother & baby
Polyhydramnios or Hydramnios
- 1500ml - 2000ml
Twins
- higher incidence of perinatal morbidity
and mortality
- high tendency toward preterm labor
and low birth weight
Clinical Correlates
Vanishing Twin
- refers to death of 1
fetus
- occurs in the 1st
trimester or early 2nd
trimester
- due to resorption or
formation of fetus
papyraceus
Clinical Correlates
Twin Transfusion Syndrome
- occurs in 5-15% of
monochorionic, monozygotic
twins
- placental vascular
anastomoses are formed
such that 1 twin receives
most of the blood flow while
the other is compromised
- results in larger 1 twin
- poor outcome (death of both
twins in 60-100% of cases)
Clinical Correlates
Conjoined Twins
= Siamese Twins
- incomplete splitting of the axial area of the germ disc