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Fluid Statics: Pressure at a Point

Pressure
For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal stress since by definition a fluid
subjected to a shear stress must deform and undergo motion. Normal stresses
are referred to as pressure p.
For the general case, the stress on a fluid element or at a point is a tensor

ij = stress tensor

= xx
xy xz
yx
yy yz
zx
For a static fluid, zy zz
tij = 0 ij shear stresses = 0
tii = p = txx = tyy = tzz i=j normal stresses =-p
Also shows that p is isotropic, one value at a point which is independent of
direction, a scalar.

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Fluid Statics: Pressure at a Point

F dF
p  lim 

A0 SF = dA
A 0
x
pnA sin  - pxA sin  = 0
W = mg pA= =p  y
= Vg x
n
= xcos
= V z = sin
V = ½ xzy

 p n  y cos   p z  y cos 

  2 cos  sin y  0
2
 y cos   p n  y cos   p z  y cos 
 
 p n  p z   sin   0   2 cos  sin y  0
2 2
  y cos 
W  ( cos )( sin )y 
2  p n  p z   sin   0
2

 p n  p z  sin   0
2
pn  pz for   0 i.e., pn = px = py = pz
2
p is single valued at a point and independent of directio
Fluid Statics: Pressure at a Point

A body/surface in contact with a static fluid experiences a force due to p

F p    p ndA
SB

Note: if p = constant, Fp = 0 for a closed body


Scalar form of Green's Theorem

 f nds   fd
s 
f = constant f = 0

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Fluid Statics: Pressure at a Point
Pressure Transmission
Pascal's law: in a closed system, a pressure change produced at one point in the
system is transmitted throughout the entire system.

Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Vacuum

pg > 0
pa = atmospheric
pA > pa pressure =
pg < 0 101.325 kPa

pA < pa
pA = 0 = absolute
zero

For pA>pa, pg = pA – pa = gage pressure


For pA<pa, pvac = -pg = pa – pA = vacuum pressure

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Fluid Statics: Pressure Variation with Elevation
For a static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation within the fluid. This can be
shown by consideration of equilibrium of forces on a fluid element
(1st order Taylor series estimate for pressure variation over dz)

Newton's law (momentum principle)


applied to a static fluid
SF = ma = 0 for a static fluid
i.e., SFx = SFy = SFz = 0
SFz = 0

p
pdxdy  ( p  dz)dxdy  gdxdydz  0
z
p
  g  
z

 Fy  0  Fx  0
p p
pdxdz  (p  dy)dxdz  0 pdydz  (p  dx )dydz  0
y x
p p
0 0
y x
For a static fluid, the pressure only varies with elevation z and is constant in
horizontal xy planes.
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Fluid Statics: Pressure Variation with Elevation
Pressure Variation for a Uniform-Density Fluid
Z
p g
z
  g    = constant for liquid

p  z
p  z
p2  p1    z2  z1 

p1  z1  p2  z2 

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Fluid Statics: Pressure Variation with Elevation
Pressure Variation for Compressible Fluids
dp
    ( p, z )  g
dz
For example, here we solve for the pressure in the atmosphere
assuming (p,T) given from ideal gas law, T(z) known, and g  g(z)
p = RT R = gas constant = 287 J/kg K
p,T in absolute scale.

dp pg

dz RT
dp  g dz

p R T (z )
which can be integrated for T(z) known

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Fluid Statics: Pressure Variation with Elevation
Pressure Variation in the Troposphere
T  To  linear decrease zo = earth surface
To  T(zo)where p  po(zo) known =0

a  lapse rate  6.5  po = 101.3 kPa


dp g dz
 T = 15C
p R [To   ( z  zo )]
 = 6.5 K/km
z '  To   ( z  zo )
dz'  dz
g
ln p  ln[To   ( z  zo )]  constant
R
g
ln po  ln To  constant
R
p g To   ( z  zo )
ln  ln
po R To

g R
p  To   ( z  zo ) 
 
po  To 
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Fluid Statics: Pressure Variation with Elevation

Pressure Variation in the Stratosphere

T  Ts  
dp g dz

p R Ts
g
ln p   z  constant
RTs
p
 e ( z  z 0 ) g / RTs

po

p  po exp[ ( z  zo ) g / RTs ]

i.e., p decreases exponentially for increasing z

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Fluid Statics: Pressure Measurements

Pressure is an important variable in fluid mechanics and many instruments have


been devised for its measurement. Many devices are based on hydrostatics such
as barometers and manometers, i.e., determine pressure through measurement of
a column (or columns) of a liquid using the pressure variation with elevation
equation for an incompressible fluid.

Differential manometer
Bourdon-Tube Gage
More modern devices include Bourdon-Tube Gage (mechanical device based
on deflection of a spring) and pressure transducers (based on deflection of a
flexible diaphragm/membrane). The deflection can be monitored by a strain
gage such that voltage output is  p across diaphragm, which enables
electronic data acquisition with computers.

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Fluid Statics: Pressure Measurements

Manometry

1.Baromete r
pv  γ
patm  γ h Λ 
Note : patm is relative to absolute zero
, i.e., absolute pressure. patm  patm(locat ion, weather)
Consider why water barometer is impractica l
 Hg hHg   H O hH O
2 2

 Hg
hH O  hHg  S Hg hHg  13.6  76 1033.6 cm  34 ft
2
H O
2

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Fluid Statics: Pressure Measurements
Manometry

patm  h  ppipe  p
p  h
Simple but impractica l for large p
and vacuum pressures (i.e., pabs  patm). Also for small p and small d,
due to large surface tension effects, could be corrected using
h  4 / d but accuracy may be problem if p/  

p1 + mh  l = p4 p1 = patm
p4 = mh  l age
= w[Smh  S l]
for gases S << Sm and can be neglected, i.e., can
neglect p in gas compared to p in liquid in
determining p4 = ppipe.

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Fluid Statics: Pressure Measurements
A differential manometer determines the difference in pressures at two points ①
and ② when the actual pressure at any point in the system cannot be
determined

p   mh  ( h)  p
1 f 1 f 2 2
p  p   (  )  (m  )h
1 2 f 2 1 f

 p1  p   
   1    2   2   : m  1h
 f   f  p1 f– p2 = (m - f) h

if fluid is a gas f << m : p1 – p2 = mh


if fluid is liquid & pipe horizontal
p1 – p2 = (m - f) h 1 =
2

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Fluid Statics: Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
For a static fluid, the shear stress is zero and the only stress is the normal stress,
i.e., pressure p. Recall that p is a scalar, which when in contact with a solid
surface exerts a normal force towards the surface.

Fp    pndA
A

For a plane surface n = constant such that we can


separately consider the magnitude and line of action
of Fp.
F p  F   pdA
A
Line of action is towards and normal to A through the center of pressure
(xcp, ycp). Unless otherwise stated, throughout the chapter assume patm
acts at liquid surface. Also, we will use gage pressure so that p = 0 at the
liquid surface.
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Fluid Statics: Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
Horizontal Surfaces

horizontal surface with area A

F   pdA  pA p = constant

Line of action is through centroid of A,


i.e., (xcp, ycp) =
g z
Inclined Surfaces

(x,y) = centroid of A
(xcp,ycp) = center of pressure

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Fluid Statics: Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
Inclined Surfaces

g z

(x,y) = centroid of A
(xcp,ycp) = center of pressure

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Fluid Statics: Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
Inclined Surfaces

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Fluid Statics: Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
1
A
y ydA

dF  pdA   y sin 
F   pdA   sin   ydA
A A

F   sin  y A  p A
Magnitude of resultant hydrostati c force on plane surface
is product of pressure at centroid of area and
area of surface

Center of Pressure
Center of pressure is in general below centroid since pressure increases with
depth. Center of pressure is determined by equating the moments of the
resultant and distributed forces about any arbitrary axis.
Determine ycp by taking moments about horizontal axis 0-0
ycpF =  ydF   y pdA
A A

 y(y sin  )dA   sin   y dA


2

A A

I0   y dA  2nd moment of area about 0 - 0


2

 moment of inertia
2
Io  y A  I
I  moment of inertia with respect to horizontal
centroidal axis 18
Fluid Statics: Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
2
ycp F   sin  ( y A  I )

2
ycp ( p A)   sin  ( y A  I )

2
ycp sin  y A   sin  ( y A  I )
2
ycp y A  y A  I
I
ycp  y 
yA
I
ycp is below centroid by
yA
ycp  y for large y
For po  0, y must be measured from an equivalent free surface located po/  above y .

Determine xcp by taking moment about y axis


x cpF   xdF   xpdA
A A

xcp sin  y A   x y sin  dA


A

xcp y A   x y dA  I xy  Pr oduct of Inertia


A

I xy  Pr oduct of Inertia  I xy  x y A transfer equation


xcp y A  I xy  x y A
I xy
xcp  x
yA
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For plane surfaces with symmetry about an axis normal to 0 - 0, I xy  0 and xCP = x .
Fluid Statics: Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

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