SEN SE S

EMER ITA C . M EN DO ZA , R .N., M. D.

 External
Anatomy of
the Eye
 TERMS TO REMEMBER:
EYE
1. Pupil 10. vitreous
2. Conjunctiva chamber
3. Cornea 11. vitreous
4. Sclera humor
5. Choroid 12. Retina
6. Iris 13. rods &
7. Ciliary body cones
8. Lens 14. optic nerve
9. aqueous 15. optic disc
chamber 16. macula
 aqueous humor
17. fovea
centralis
 Pupils
the black spot or
opening in the center
of the circular
muscles of the iris
bright light: the
circular ms of the iris
contracts,  pupil size
dim light:  pupil
size
 Conjunctiva
 a moist mucous
membrane that
extends as a
continuous lining
of the inner layer
of the eyelids
 clear & colorless
except when
blood vessels are
dilated 
bloodshot eyes
 Cornea

 the transparent,
avascular layer
that covers the
iris & the pupil at
the front of the
eye
 frequently
referred to as the
window of the eye
 function: to bend,
or refract the rays
of the light
 Sclera

 the white of the

eye
 tough, fibrous,
connective tissue
that extends from
the cornea on the
anterior surface of
the eyeball to the
optic nerve
 Choroid
 a layer inside the
sclera made of
black pigment
cells that absorb
light rays so that
they are not
reflected back
 rich in blood
vessels that
supply nutrients
to the eye
 Iris
 the colored portion of
the eye that surrounds
the pupil
 smooth ms constrict
the pupil in bright light
& vice-versa
 color is determined by
the amount of
pigment present (blue
has the least, brown
has the most)
 Ciliary Body And Lens
 located on each side
of the lens, contains
ms that can adjust
the shape &
thickness of the lens
 lens is a clear,
crystalline body that
may be thinned or
flattened for distant
vision & thickened
for close vision
 refractive power of
the lens is called
accommodation
 Anterior & Vitreous Chamber
 the lens lies at the
rear of the anterior
chamber filled with a
fluid called aqueous
humor that maintains
shape & nourishes the
structures within
 behind the lens is the
vitreous chamber that
is filled with a soft,
jelly-like material, the
vitreous humor
 Retina
 the thin, delicate, and sensitive nerve
layer of the eye
 contains specialized sensory cells, the rods
& cones
 rods: 120M, for vision in dim light or darkness
& peripheral vision
 cones: 6.5M, for vision in bright light, color
vision, & central vision
 cones are most concentrated in the fovea
centralis and is the region of sharpest
vision
 Optic Nerve & Disc
 light energy, when
focused on the
retina, causes a
chemical change in
the rods & cones
 nerve impulses
travel to the brain
via optic nerve
 region where optic
nerve meets the
retina is called
optic disc ( also
known as blind
spot due to
absence of rods &
cones)
 Visual Pathway
 Ganglion cells of the retina exit thru the
optic disc  converge to form the optic
nerve  pass thru the optic chiasm: 1)
fibers from the nasal part crossover to the
opposite side & 2) fibers from the
temporal side go on the same side optic
tract  thalamus & midbrain (pupillary
reflexes & eye movements)
 Eye Vs Camera
 The eye can be compared to a camera in
many ways. It has an adjustable lens and a
variable aperture system [pupil]. The
retina can be compared to the light-
sensitive film used in a camera. Because
of the ability of the eye to accommodate
to different distances, the image is clearly
focused on the retina unless there is some
error in accommodation. The choroid layer
absorbs light rays like the interior dark
surface of a camera.
Extraocular muscles of the Eye
Accommodation
Accommodation. How
the lens changes in
distant and near
vision:
(a) Relaxation of the
ciliary muscles causes
the suspensory ligament
to draw the lens into
a flattened shape
suitable for distant
vision.
(b) Contraction of the
ciliary muscle relieves
the tension on the
suspensory ligaments,
allowing the lens to
 TERMS TO REMEMBER:
Charts, Diopters, Lens
 All require lens correction:  diopter: refractive
 Myopic: nearsighted -> power of a lens at
concave lens 1m
 Snellen: to test
 Hyperopic: farsighted -> nearsightedness
convex lens  e.g., 20/50 OD
 Emmetropic: normal -> no or + 0.50 OD =
correction  Jaeger: to test
 Astigmatism: irregular lens farsightedness
-> depends on area
affected
EARS, NOSE AND
THROAT
EMERITA C. MENDOZA,
R.N., M.D.
 EAR  1. The external ear
-sound-collecting visible
organ of hearing and portion (auricle or pinna),
balance divided into: the outer ear canal
(external auditory
meatus), and the outer
surface of the eardrum
(tympanum).
 2. The middle ear- the
inner surface of the
eardrum, the ossicular
chain (malleus, incus, and
stapes), the eustachian
tube, and the outer surface
of the oval and round
windows, and the cochlea.
 3. The inner ear-
vestibule, the semi-circular
canals, the inner surface of
the oval and round
 The EAR

 external & middle

ear function for
sound
conduction; inner
ear receives
sound waves &
relays them to
the brain
 Structures of the Ear
External Ear:

 pinna or auricle
-the projecting
part, or flap, of
the ear
Function: to
collect sound
waves & funnel
them to the
canal
-cartilage & fat;

covered with
skin
that continues
into
the ear canal
 External Auditory Meatus

 also called auditory

canal
 with ceruminous
glands which
secrete cerumen
(earwax) that helps
lubricate & protect
the epithelial lining
from infection
 MIDDLE EAR
tympanic
membrane
or eardrum

malleus
incus
Stapes

oval window
auditory/
eustachian
 Eustachian Tube
 connects the
middle ear & the
external
environment
through the throat
 equalizes the
pressure on the
two sides of the
eardrum
 susceptible to
bacterial infection
 middle ear
infection
 Tympanic Membrane

 separates the
middle & external
ear
 flexible membrane
vibrates as
incoming sound
waves move
through the canal
 Ossicles

 small moist cavity

in the temporal
bone containing air
 malleus, incus, &
stapes attached to
the oval window
leading to the inner
ear
 amplify sound
waves
 Inner Ear or Labyrinth
 contains the
mechanism for
converting sound
waves to nerve
impulses
 cochlea – a bony,
snail-shaped structure
that contains
perilymph &
endolymph that carry
the vibrations through
the system
 organ of Corti – the
sound receptor, with
hair cells that transmit
sound waves to the
Inner Ear or
Labyrinth:
cochlea
perilymph
endolymph
organ of Corti
auditory nerve
fibers
Structures for
equilibrium:
vestibule
3 semicircular
canals:
saccule &
utricle
endolymph
 Equilibrium
 vestibular apparatus detects sensations
regarding body position and equilibrium
 It includes the three semicircular canals and
two small chambers, the saccule and utricle,
which connect them to the vestibule.
 Within it are sensory hair cells that transmit
information about the position of the body,
mainly the head.
 The response of the hair cells is produced by
the flow of endolymph within the semicircular
canals as the position of one's head is
changed. These responses in turn are
transmitted to the vestibular nerve, which
joins the cochlear nerve to form the
 SMELL
 Olfactory information is transmitted by
receptor cells in the olfactory epithelium at
the upper part of the nasal cavity.
 In contrast to the taste buds, it is estimated
that the olfactory epithelium may be able to
discriminate among as many as 50 different
smells.
 Smells discerned by the olfactory epithelium
are transmitted to the olfactory center in the
brain through the olfactory nerve (CN I).
 Olfactory cells are not replaced, therefore
once damaged, our sense of smell is impaired.
 Both smell and taste are important in
stimulating appetite and digestive juices.
 Location &
structure of the
olfactory
epithelium
 What is the throat?
 a ring-like muscular tube that acts as the
passageway for air, food, and liquid. The
throat also helps in forming speech. Consists
of:
 larynx - also known as the voice box, the
larynx is a cylindrical grouping of cartilage,
muscles, and soft tissue which contains the
vocal cords. The vocal cords are the upper
opening into the windpipe (trachea), the
passageway to the lungs.
 epiglottis - a flap of soft tissue located just
above the vocal cords. The epiglottis folds
down over the vocal cords to prevent food and
irritants from entering the lungs.
 tonsils and adenoids - made up of lymph tissue
and are located at the back and the sides of
Epiglottis
 Thin leaf-shaped
cartilage, covered
with mucous
membrane, at the
root of the tongue,
which folds back
over the entrance
to the larynx,
covering it during
the act of
swallowing
 Tonsils
 pair of prominent
masses of
lymphoid tissue
that are located
opposite each
other in the throat
between the
anterior and
posterior pillars of
the fauces
 TASTE
 The sense of taste is perceived through the
taste buds on the tongue and in various
parts of the mouth.
 average of 10,000 taste buds in the normal
adult mouth. As an individual gets older the
number of taste buds gradually decreases.
 The taste buds are able to discriminate
among four primary tastes: sweet, sour,
salty, and bitter.
 Both the facial (CN VII) and the
glossopharyngeal (CN IX) nerves transmit
the sensory input to the brain.
THE SENSE OF TASTE.
Location of taste buds within the tongue.
 TACTILE SENSATION
 Types of similar
receptors referred
to as respond to
pressure, touch,
and vibration.
 Located in various
layers of the skin,
in the fingertips
and toes, and in
the tip of the
tongue.
 Meissner's corpuscles are fine-touch
receptors.  If you close your eyes and have a
friend place an object in the open palm of your hand,
chances are good you will be able to detect the
object but you will not be able to identify it, shape,
texture, & density, information your brain uses to
identify the object.
 Pacinian corpuscle or pressure receptors
located deeper in the skin that enable you to detect
the object due to its weight, specialized bulblike
nerve ending located in the subcutaneous tissue of
the skin; occurs abundantly in the skin of palms and
soles and joints and genitals
 Ruffini Corpuscles
- thermoreceptor for warm temperature
 Krause Corpuscles
 PAIN
 sensory mechanism
that is protective
for the body.
 Pain receptors are
sensory nerve
endings found in
the skin and certain
internal tissues.
 in experiencing
pain, it may be felt
in an area
considerably
distant from the
primary area of
pain REFERRED
PAIN
 PROPRIOCEPTION
 or position sense, helps us
maintain the position of the body
and its parts.

 The receptors performing this

function are widely spread
sensory organs known as
proprioceptors. They are
located within muscles, tendons,
and joints.

 The brain coordinates the

information from the
proprioceptors with the
information from the vestibular
 Proprioception
 1. A sense of position
For example, we can 'feel' that our feet are in
first position or that our arms are in second
position, without having to look to check.
 2. A sense of movement
We can accurately feel the speed and direction
of movement of our limbs. This allows us to co-
ordinate our limbs when they are moving.
 3. A sense of force
This is about the amount of effort a muscle
needs to make to produce an accurate
movement, and this is particularly important
when lifting.