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GASES LIQUIDS
Fills any container/vessel in A given mass of liquid will
which it is contained. occupy a fixed volume,
It is easily compressed irrespective of the size of the
container.
It is hard to compress
A free surface is formed as a boundary between a liquid and a gas above it.
Density
The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume. It is
denoted by the Greek symbol, .
kg
m water= 998 kgm-3
=
kgm-3 V m3 air =1.2kgm-3
If the density varies significantly (eg some gas flows), the flow is
compressible.
N
F pa= 105 Nm-2
Nm-2 p=
A m2 1psi =6895Pa
(Pa)
p= g h increase in
pressure
increase depth (m)
p3 p1 = p2 = p3
p1 p2
STATIC AND DYNAMICS OF FLUID
No Flow Fluid is
flowing
FLOW
• Continuous deformation
• Change of velocity of particles with respect to location
• If all particles move with the same velocity, there is no flow
(example: translation or rotation)
water
v1, 1 v2, 2
Mass flow Mass flow
at point 1 at point 2
Compressible fluids:
Incompressible fluids:
Q1 = A1V1
Q2 = A2V2
A2 <<<<<
A1 >>>>> V2 >>>>>>
V1 <<<<<
A1V1 = A2V2
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
(mass conservation)
If area between streamlines
is high, the velocity is low
High
velocity
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
(mass conservation)
If area between streamlines is
very large, the velocity is low
Viscous
Flow
EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW
(ENERGY conservation)
The Euler and Bernoulli’s Equation
Pitot Tubes:
v pT
ps
Bernoulli Assumptions
There are three main variables in the Bernoulli Equation
Pressure – Velocity – Elevation
To simplify problems, assumptions are often made to
eliminate one or more variables
Key Assumption # 1
Velocity = 0
Imagine a swimming pool with a small 1 cm hole on the floor of the pool.
If you apply the Bernoulli equation at the surface, and at the hole, we
assume that the volume exiting through the hole is trivial compared to the
total volume of the pool, and therefore the Velocity of a water particle at
the surface can be assumed to be zero.
Bernoulli Assumptions
Key Assumption # 2
Pressure = 0
Whenever the only pressure acting on a point is the standard
atmospheric pressure, then the pressure at that point can be assumed to
be zero because every point in the system is subject to that same
pressure.
Therefore, for any free surface or free jet, pressure at that point can be
assumed to be zero.
Bernoulli Assumptions
Key Assumption # 3
The Continuity Equation
In cases where one or both of the previous assumptions do not apply,
then we might need to use the continuity equation to solve the problem
A1V1=A2V2
Which satisfies that inflow and outflow are equal at any section
EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW
(ENERGY conservation)
Airspeed Indicator
Friction
Measuring pressure (1)
Manometers
p1 = px (negligible pressure
change in a gas)
p1
px = py (since they are at
p2=p
the same height)
a
z pz= p2 = pa
h
x y py - pz = gh
liquid p1 - pa = gh
density
D
2 cm3
A l
B C
Measuring Pressure (2)
Barometers
vacuum p1 = 0
A barometer is used to
measure the pressure of the
atmosphere. The simplest
type of barometer consists of a h
column of fluid.
p2 = pa
p2 - p1 = gh
pa = gh
examples
water: h = pa/g =105/(103*9.8) ~10m
mercury: h = pa/g =105/(13.4*103*9.8) ~800mm
Original Form of Bernoulli Equation:
- Example 1:
Determine the velocity and mass flow rate of efflux from
the circular hole (0.1 m dia.) at the bottom of the water
tank (at this instant). The tank is open to the atmosphere
and H=4 m
p1 = p2, V1= 0
1
V2 2 g ( z1 z2 ) 2 gH
H
2 * 9.8 * 4 8.85 (m / s)
m AV 1000 * (0.1) 2 (8.85)
4
2 69.5 (kg / s)
Example 2: If the tank has a cross-sectional area of 1 m2,
estimate the time required to drain the tank to level 2.
dh dh
h( t ) 2
0.0443 h , 0.0443dt, integrate
dt h
h(t) =0 H 0.0215t, h 0, tdrain 93 sec.
2 h - 0.0443t
1
2.5e-007 4
0
0
0
20 40
t
60 80 100
100
t 90.3 sec
time (sec.)
Perfume in a bottle has a density of 955 kg/m3 and its
level is h=0.025m below the nozzle as shown in the
figure. Calculate the minimum speed of the air, so the
liquid will reach the nozzle. [For the density of air use
air = 29.1.29 kg/m3]
A Pitot tube is an instrument used to measure airs peed of an aircraft
or fluid flow in pipes. In the following schematic, the mercury is
initially leveled because there is no flow. Calculate the difference in
level when the speed of the flow of air is v=10.5 m/s. [Take the
density of air=1.29kg/m3 ][1 torr = 133 pascals]
Water flows in the pipeline. Calculate maximum velocity umax in the
pipe axis and discharge Q. Determine whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent (T = 12oC). The mercury differential manometer (Hg = 13600
kgm-3) shows the difference between levels in Pitot tube Hm = 0,02 m.
Diameter of the pipe is D = 0,15 m. Velocity coefficient of Pitot tube is
= 1,0. Mean velocity is considered to be v = 0,84 umax
Pipe Flow Example
If oil flows from the upper to lower reservoir at a velocity of 1.58 m/s in the
D= 15 cm smooth pipe, what is the elevation of the oil surface in the
upper reservoir?
Include major losses along the pipe, and the minor losses associated with
the entrance, the two bends, and the outlet.
Pipe Flow Example
1 Z1 = ?
2
Z2 = 130
60 m m
7m Kout=
r/D = 0 1
130 m
r/D = 2
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2:
Assumptions: P1 = P2 = Atmospheric = 0 V1 = V2 = 0 (large tank)
0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + Hmaj + Hmin
Hmaj = (f L V2)/(D 2g)=(.035 x 197m * (1.58m/s)2)/(.15 x 2 x 9.8m/s2)
Hmaj= 5.85m
Pipe Flow Example
1 Z1 = ?
2
Z2 = 130
60 m m
7m Kout=
r/D = 0 1
130 m
r/D = 2
0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + 5.85m + Hmin
Hmin= 2KbendV2/2g + KentV2/2g + KoutV2/2g
From Loss Coefficient table: Kbend = 0.19 Kent = 0.5 Kout = 1
Hmin = (0.19x2 + 0.5 + 1) * (1.582/2*9.8)
Hmin = 0.24 m
Pipe Flow Example
1 Z1 = ?
2
Z2 = 130
60 m m
7m Kout=
r/D = 0 1
130 m
r/D = 2
Area Yn
Y
X
Wetted Perimeter
Slope = S = Y/X
Manning’s Equation
V = (1/n)R2/3√(S) for the metric system
Slope
S = 0.001 ft/ft 25’
a = 20°
Concrete Lined
n = 0.015 B=35’
A, P and R for Trapezoidal Channels
A = Yn(B + Yn cot a)
Y
P = B + (2Yn/sin a )
n θ
B R = (Yn(B + Yn cot a)) / (B + (2Yn/sin a))
The Trapezoidal Channel
Slope
S = 0.0003 ft/ft 25’
Θ = 20°
Concrete Lined
n = 0.015 35’
A = Yn(B + Yn cot a)
A = 25( 35 + 25 cot(20)) = 2592 ft2
P = B + (2Yn/sin a )
P = 35 + (2 x 25/sin(20)) = 181.2 ft
R = 2592’ / 181.2’ = 14.3 ft
The Trapezoidal Channel
Slope
S = 0.0003 ft/ft 25’
Θ = 20°
Concrete Lined
n = 0.015 35’
3’
Grass Grass 3’
n=.03 Concrete n=.03
n=.015
Estimate the flow rate for the above channel?
Hint:
Treat each different portion of the channel separately.
You must find an A, R, P and Q for each section of the channel
that has a different n coefficient. Neglect dotted line segments.
Manning’s Over Grass
S = .005
ft/ft
5’ 5’ 5’
3’
Grass Grass 3’
n=.03 Concrete n=.03
n=.015
The Grassy portions:
For each section:
A = 5’ x 3’ = 15 ft2 P = 5’ + 3’ = 8 ft R = 15 ft2/8 ft = 1.88 ft
Q = 15(1.49/.03)1.882/3√(.005)
Q = 80.24 cfs per section For both sections…
Q = 2 x 80.24 = 160.48 cfs
Manning’s Over Concrete
S = .005
ft/ft
5’ 5’ 5’
3’
Grass Grass 3’
n=.03 Concrete n=.03
n=.015
The Concrete section
A = 5’ x 6’ = 30 ft2 P = 5’ + 3’ + 3’= 11 ft R = 30 ft2/11 ft = 2.72 ft
Q = 30(1.49/.015)2.722/3√(.005)
Q = 410.6 cfs
For the entire channel…
Q = 410.6 + 129.3 = 540 cfs
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