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ELECTROMAGNETIC
THEORY
A few examples of transverse electromagnetic (TEM) and higher order transmission line
Lumped- element model
• A transmission line is represented by a parallel-
wire configuration regardless of the specific
shape of the line, (in term of lumped element
circuit model)
– i.e coaxial line, two-wire line or any TEM line.
• Lumped element circuit model consists of four
basic elements called ‘the transmission line
parameters’ : R’ , L’ , G’ , C’ .
L' ln ( d / 2a ) (d / 2a ) 2 1
G'
2
ln (d / 2a ) (d / 2a ) 1)
σc= G ' 0
C'
2
ln (d / 2a ) (d / 2a ) 1)
L' ln ( d / 2a) (d / 2a ) 2 1
d 2cm 0.02m
a 1mm 0.001m
0.02 0.02 2
L' ln ( ) ( ) 1
2(0.001) 2(0.001)
L' 1.20H / m
C'
ln (d / 2a ) (d / 2a ) 2 1)
d 2cm 0.02m
a 1mm 0.001m
C'
0.02 0.02 2
ln ( ) ( ) 1
2(0.001) 2(0.001)
C ' 9.29 pF / m
Exercise 2:
• Calculate the transmission line parameters
at 1 MHz for a rigid coaxial air line with
an inner conductor diameter of 0.6 cm
and outer conductor diameter of 1.2
cm. The conductors are made of copper.
(μc=0.9991 ; σc=5.8x107)
f = 1MHz
r1 = 0.006m/2 = 0.003m
r2 = 0.012m/2 = 0.006m
Solution exercise 2:
f
Rs 1 1 Rs
R' o
2 a b
(1Mhz )
Rs Rs 2.608 x10 4
5.8 x107
2.608 x10 4 1 1
R'
2 0.003 0.006
R ' 0.0208 / m
BARE IN
UR MIND
L' ln(b / a )
2 o r
a 0.003m o (const 33)
From calculator
b 0.006m
r from appendix B
0.006 (pg238)
L' ln
2 0.003
L' 0.138H / m
BARE IN
2 UR MIND
C'
ln b / a
o r
o (const 32)
d 2cm 0.02m
From calculator
a 1mm 0.001m
r from appendix B
(pg 237)
2
C'
0.006
ln
0.003
C ' 80.3 pF / m
2
G'
b
ln
a
Because, the material
G ' 0 separating the inner and
outer is perfect dielectric
(air) with σ=0, thus G’ = 0
R ' jL'
Z0
G ' jC '
2f
u p f
• With R’ = G’ = 0,
• propagatio n constant, R' jL' G ' jC '
jL' jC ' L' C '
2
L' C '
and
R ' jL' L'
• Z0
G ' jC ' C'
Solution to Example 1
2
L' C ' L'
Z 0 L ' C
• The ratio is given by: Z0 L' C'
C'
L'
2 Z o 2 ( L' C ' )
2 2 2 Z o 2C 2
C'
Z o C
20
C' 90.9 pF/m
Z 0 2 7 10 50
8
• We get L’ from Z0
Z 0 L' C ' L' 50 90.9 1012 227 nH/m
2
Lossless transmission line
Transmission line can be designed to minimize ohmic losses by
selecting high conductivities and dielectric material, thus we assume :
• Wavelength, λ
upc 1 0
f f r r
2
3 x108 1 r 1.449
r r 2. 1
1GHz 0.207
Exercise 4
• A lossless transmission line of length 80
cm operates at a frequency of 600MHz.
The line parameters are :
C 100 pF/m L 0.25 μH/m
0.25 x10 6
Z0 50
100 x10 12
= 18.85 rad/m
2f
• phase velocity: u p f
2 (600 x106 )
vp
18.85
8
2 x10 m / s
Voltage Reflection Coefficient
• Every transmission line has a resistance
associated with it, and comes about because of its
construction. This is called its characteristic
impedance, Z0.
2 2 1 0.5
0.5 1.59 tan
0.5 j1.59 1 1.59
0.5 j1.59 1 2 2 1 1.5
1.5 1.59 tan
1.59
1.5772.6 0.76119 .3
2.19 46.7
0.76e j119 .3
In order to convert from –ve 0.76e j119 .3 (e j180 )
magnitude for Г by replacing the
–ve sign with e-j180 0.76e j 60.7
0.76 ; r 60.7
Math’s TIP…
1
2
Exercise 5
• A 150 Ω lossless line is terminated in a
load impedance ZL= (30 –j200) Ω.
Calculate the voltage reflection coefficient
at the load.
Zo = 150 Ω Z L Z0
ZL= (30 –j200) Ω Z L Z0
o
(30 j 200) 150 0.867e j 72. 95
(30 j 200) 150
Standing Waves
• Interference of the reflected wave and the
incident wave along a transmission line creates
a standing wave.
• Constructive interference gives maximum value
for standing wave pattern, while destructive
interference gives minimum value.
• The repetition period is λ for incident and
reflected wave individually.
• But, the repetition period for standing wave
pattern is λ/2.
Standing Waves
• For a matched line, ZL = Z0, Γ = 0 and
~
V z = |V0+| for all values of z.
Standing Waves
• For a short-circuited load, (ZL=0), Γ = -1.
Standing Waves
• For an open-circuited load, (ZL=∞), Γ = 1.
• If θr ≥ 0 n=0;
• If θr ≤ 0 n=1
Z L Z0
Z L Z0
2 2 1 182
140 182 tan
140 23052.4o
182 45723.43o
4202 1822 tan 1
420 0.528.97 o
• b) The VSWR;
1 | |
VSWR
1 | |
0.528.97 o
1 | 0.528.97 |
VSWR
1 | 0.528.97 |
1 0.5
VSWR 3
1 0.5
• The locations of voltage maxima and
minima
r n
lmax where n 0
4 2
(0.5)(72) n
lmax
4 2
n
2.9cm
2
lmax / 4 if lmax / 4
lmin
72cm
lmax / 4 if lmax / 4 72cm / 4 18cm
lmax / 4
lmin lmax / 4
72
(2.9 n )
2 4
20.9 n
2
Input impedance of a lossless
line
• The input impedance, Zin is the ratio of the total
voltage (incident and reflected voltages) to the
total current at any point z on the line.
~
V ( z)
Z in ( z ) ~
I ( z)
1 e j 2 z
Z0 j 2 z
1 e
• or
Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l Z L jZ 0 tan l
Z in l Z 0
Z 0
Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l Z 0 jZ L tan l
Special cases of the lossless
line Tahun 4 tahun 2
• For a line terminated in a short-circuit, ZL = 0:
~
sc Vsc l
Z in ~ jZ 0 tan l
I sc l
Voc l
Z inoc ~ jZ 0 cot l
I oc l
Application of short-circuit and
open-circuit measurements
• The measurements of short-circuit input
impedance, Z insc and open-circuit input
impedance, Z inoc can be used to measure the
characteristic impedance of the line:
Z o Z insc Z inoc
• and
Z insc
tan l
Z inoc
Length of line
• If the transmission line has length l n / 2 ,
where n is an integer,
tan l tan 2 / n / 2
tan n 0
Z in Z L for l n / 2
Quarter wave transformer
• If the transmission line is a quarter wavelength,
with ,
l / 4 n / 2 n 0 or any positive integer
where 2 , we have
l
4 2
, then the input impedance becomes:
2
Z0
Z in for l / 4 n / 2
ZL
Example 4
A 50-Ω lossless transmission line is to be matched
to a resistive load impedance with ZL=100Ω via a
quarter-wave section as shown, thereby eliminating
reflections along the feedline. Find the
characteristic impedance of the quarter-wave
transformer.
Quarter wave transformer
• If the transmission line is a quarter wavelength,
with ,
l / 4 n / 2 n 0 or any positive integer
where 2 , we have
l
4 2
, then the input impedance becomes:
2
Z0
Z in for l / 4 n / 2
ZL
Solution to Example 4
• Zin = 50Ω; ZL=100Ω
2
Z 02 2
Z in Z 02 (50)(100)
ZL
Z 02 50 100 70.7
l 0
l
Application 2 Z in Z L
Be used to measure the But, If the
characteristic impedance of transmission line is
the line :
l
sc
Z in l 2
Z o Z in
sc Z oc
in tan l
4
Z in Z 0 2 Z L
oc
Z in
Power flow on a lossless
transmission line
• Two ways to determine the average power of an incident
wave and the reflected wave;
– Time-domain approach
– Phasor domain approach 2
i
V0
• Average power for incident wave; Pav 2Z (W)
0
2
2 V0
• Average power for reflected wave: Pavr
2
Pavi
2Z 0
Z L Z0
Z L Z0
2 2 1 50
50 50 tan 70.745o
50
158.118.4o
50
150 2 50 2 tan 1
150 0.4526.6o
2
0 .2
2
r 2 1
Pav 0.45 2mW
2(50)
Smith Chart stop
• Smith chart is used to analyze & design
transmission line circuits.
• Reflection coefficient, Γ : e j r r ji
Гr = real part, Гi = imaginary part
0.3 0.4
2 2
1/ 2
0.5
r
tan 0.4 / 0.3 53
1
ZL zL 1
• Since zL , Γ becomes:
Z0 zL 1
1
• Re-arrange in terms of zL: z L rL jx L
1
(2 j1) 1
(2 j1) 1
12 12
2
3 12
0.45
r tan 1 1 / 2 26.6
Input impedance
• The input impedance, Zin:
1 e j 2 l
Z in Z 0
1 e j 2 l
• Γ is the voltage reflection coefficient at the load.
• We shift the phase angle of Γ by 2βl, to get ΓL.
This will zL to zin. The |Γ| is the same, but the
phase is changed by 2βl.
• On the Smith chart, this means rotating in a
clockwise direction (WTG).
Input impedance
• Since β = 2π/λ, shifting by 2 βl is equal to phase
change of 2π.
• Equating: 2 l 2 2 l 2
• Hence, for one complete rotation corresponds to
l = λ/2.
• The objective of shifting Γ to ΓL is to find Zin at
an any distance l on the transmission line.
Example 5
• A 50-Ω transmission line is terminated with
ZL=(100-j50)Ω. Find Zin at a distance l =0.1λ from
the load.
Z L 100 j 50
zL
Z0 50
zL 2 j
Solution to Example 5
A2 j
l =0.1λ
zin = 0.6 –j0.66
de normalize
(multiplying by Zo)
Zin = 30 –j33
VSWR, Voltage Maxima and
Voltage Minima
zL=2+j1
VSWR = 2.6
(at Pmax).
lmax=(0.25-0.213)λ
=0.037λ.
lmin=(0.037+0.25)λ
=0.287λ
VSWR, Voltage Maxima and
Voltage Minima
• Point A is the normalized load impedance with
zL=2+j1.
• VSWR = 2.6 (at Pmax).
• The distance between the load and the first
voltage maximum is lmax=(0.25-0.213)λ=0.037λ.
• The distance between the load and the first
voltage minimum is lmin=(0.037+0.25)λ =0.287λ.
Impedance to admittance
transformations
zL=0.6 + j1.4
yL=0.25 - j0.6
Example 6
• Given that the voltage standing-wave ratio, VSWR = 3.
On a 50-Ω line, the first voltage minimum occurs at 5 cm
from the load, and that the distance between
successive minima is 20 cm, find the load
impedance.
Solution:
The distance between successive minima is equal to
λ/2.
the distance between successive minima is 20 cm,
Hence, λ = 40 cm 20 / 2
2(20)
Solution to Example 6
Point A =VSWR = 3
5
l min 0.125
40
z L 0 .6 j 0 .8
de normalize
(multiplying by Zo)
Zin = 30 –j40
Solution to Example 6
• First voltage minimum (in wavelength unit) is at
5
l min 0.125 on the WTL scale from point B.
40
(0.6 j 0.4) 1
(0.6 j 0.4) 1
j j121
0.4 2 0.4 2 e 0.34e
1.6 2 0.4 2
0.34
r 121 • 0.25 - 0.082
0.082 0.168
z L 0.6 j 0.4
lmin lmax
length :
0.301
Z in
• 0.72 - j0.62
• 0.301 0.082
0.383
3) Move a distance 0.301λ towards the generator (WTG)
(refer to Smith chart)
• → 0.301λ + 0.082λ=0.383λ
YL=1/ZL
stub
l
feed line
Yd = Y0+jB
Single- stub matching
• The length l of the stub is chosen so that its
input admittance, YS at MM’ is equal to –jB.
• Hence, the parallel sum of the two admittances
at MM’ yields Y0, which is the characteristic
admittance of the line.
Yd = Y0+jB
Single- stub matching
• Thus, the main idea of shunt stub matching network is
to:
matching network.
Example 7
50-Ω transmission line is connected to an
antenna with load impedance ZL = (25 − j50)Ω.
Find the position and length of the short-
circuited stub required to match the line.
Solution:
The normalized load impedance is:
Z L 25 j 50
zL 0.5 j (located at A).
Z0 50
Solution to Example 7
B yL
0.4 j0.8
y L load admittance
A 0 .5 j
Solution to Example 7
• Value of yL at B is y L 0.4 j 0.8 which locates
at position 0.115λ on the WTG scale.
B
C = 1+j1.58
D = 1+j1.58
A
Solution to Example 7
First matching points, C.
• At C, yd 1 j1.58 is at 0.178λ on WTG scale.
• Distance B and C is d 0.178 0.155 0.063
• Normalized input admittance yin ys y d
at the juncture is: 1 j 0 ys 1 j1.58
ys j1.58
E is the admittance of short-circuit stub, y L=-j∞.
Normalized admittance of −j 1.58 at F and
position 0.34λ on the WTG scale gives:
l1 0.34 0.25 0.09
B 0.115
d1 = 0.063λ
d 0.178 0.115 0.063
B
C = 1+j1.58
Open E Short
circuited circuited
stub stub
l1 = 0.090λ
l 0.34 0.25 0.09
A
F = -j1.58 yin ys yd
F
1 j 0 ys 1 j1.58
ys j1.58
First matching points, C
• Thus, the values are:
• d1 = 0.063 λ
• l1 = 0.09 λ
• yd1 = 1 + j1.58 Ω
• ys1 = -j1.58 Ω
B
G G = +j1.58
d2 = 0.207λ
E
l2
= 0.41λ
D = 1-j1.58
A
First matching points, D
• Thus, the values are:
• d2 = 0.207 λ
• l2 = 0.41 λ
• yd2 = 1 - j1.58 Ω
• ys2 = +j1.58 Ω
l1=0.09λ,
l2=0.41 λ