ANATOMY

2. skin &
introduction to skeletal system
28 Nov 2014
Dr Diya
The skin is the
largest organ in
the body

it accounts for
≈15%-20% of the
total body mass
SKIN
 Functions of skin
1. Protection: against [1]mechanical abrasion; [2]in
immune responses & [3]prevention of dehydration
2. Temperature regulation: via [1]vasodilation&
vasoconstriction, [2]fat storage, or [3]activation of
sweat glands
3. Sensations: [1]touch by specialized mechanoreceptors
such as pacinian & Meissner’s corpuscles; [2]pain by
nociceptors; [3]temperature by thermoreceptors
4. Endocrine regulation: by secretion of hormones,
cytokines, growth factors, & by synthesis and storage
of vitamin D
5. Exocrine secretions: by secretion of sweat and oily
sebum from sebaceous glands
 Layers of skin
The skin consists of two layers:
1.Epidermis: an outer protective layer consisting
of a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
– derived from the embryonic ectoderm
2.Dermis: a dense connective tissue layer that
– gives skin most of its thickness and support, and
– is derived from the embryonic mesoderm
 epidermis
1. The epidermis is a stratified epithelium whose
cells become flattened as they mature and rise
to the surface.
– On the palms of the hands & the soles of the feet,
the epidermis is extremely thick (to withstand the
wear and tear)
– In other areas of the body, e.g., on the anterior
surface of the arm & forearm, it is thin.
 dermis
2. The dermis is composed of dense connective
tissue containing many blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels & nerves
– shows considerable variation in thickness in
different body parts
– thinner on the anterior than on the posterior
surface
– thinner in women than in men
3. The dermis of the skin is connected to the
underlying deep fascia or bones by the
superficial fascia (subcutaneous tissue)
 skin creases
• The skin over joints always
folds in the same place, the
SKIN CREASES
• At these sites,
– the skin is thinner than
elsewhere
– and is firmly tethered to
underlying structures by strong
bands of fibrous tissue
 Skin appendages
• The appendages of the skin are the
1. nails,
2. hair follicles,
3. sebaceous glands, and
4. sweat glands
 nails
• The nails are keratinized plates on the dorsal
surfaces of the tips of the fingers and toes.
• The proximal edge of the plate is the root of
the nail
• With the exception of the distal edge of the
plate, the nail is surrounded and overlapped
by folds of skin known as nail folds.
• The surface of skin covered by the nail is the
nail bed
 hairs
• Hairs grow out of follicles, which are
invaginations of the epidermis into the dermis
• The follicles lie obliquely to the skin surface,
and their expanded extremities, called hair
bulbs, penetrate to the deeper part of the
dermis.
• Each hair bulb is concave at its end, and the
concavity is occupied by vascular connective
tissue called hair papilla.
• A band of smooth muscle, the arrector pili,
connects the undersurface of the follicle to the
superficial part of the dermis
• The muscle is innervated by sympathetic nerve
fibers, and its contraction:
– causes the hair to move into a more vertical position;
– it also compresses the sebaceous gland and causes it to
extrude some of its secretion.
– The pull of the muscle also causes dimpling of the skin
surface, so-called gooseflesh.
• Hairs are distributed in various numbers over
the whole surface of the body, except
– on the lips,
– palms of the hands,
– sides of the fingers,
– glans penis and clitoris,
– labia minora & internal surface of labia majora,
– soles and sides of the feet
– sides of the toes.
 sebaceous glands
• A cutaneous gland tht secrete sebum for
lubricating hair n skin
• They are situated on the sloping undersurface of
the follicles and lie within the dermais
• Sebum is an oily material that
– helps preserve the flexibility of the emerging hair.
– It also oils the surface epidermis around the mouth
of the follicle
 sweat glands
• Sweat glands are long, spiral, tubular glands
distributed over the surface of the body, except
– on the red margins of the lips,
– the nail beds, and
– the glans penis and clitoris
• These glands extend through the full thickness of
the dermis, and their extremities may lie in the
superficial fascia.
• The sweat glands are therefore the most deeply
penetrating structures of all the epidermal
appendages.
Breaktime!
 Fasciae
• The fasciae of the body can be divided into 2
types—
1. superficial and
2. deep

• and lie between the skin and the underlying

muscles and bones.
 1. superficial fascia
• The superficial fascia, or subcutaneous
tissue,
• is a mixture of loose areolar and adipose
tissue that
• unites the dermis of the skin to the
underlying deep fascia
 Variations in SF
• In the scalp, the back of the neck, the palms of
the hands, and the soles of the feet, it
contains numerous bundles of collagen fibers
that hold the skin firmly to the deeper
structures.
• In the eyelids, auricle of the ear, penis and
scrotum, & clitoris, it is devoid of adipose
tissue
 2. deep fascia
• The deep fascia is a membranous layer of
connective tissue that
• invests the muscles and other deep
structures
 Variations in DF
– In the neck, it forms well-defined layers that may
play an important role in determining the path
taken by pathogenic organisms during the spread
of infection.
– In the thorax and abdomen, it is merely a thin film
of areolar tissue covering the muscles and
aponeuroses.
– In the limbs, it forms a definite sheath around the
muscles and other structures, holding them in
place.
 DF in the limbs
• Fibrous septa extend from the deep surface of
the membrane, between the groups of muscles,
and in many places divide the interior of the
limbs into compartments
• In the region of joints, the deep fascia may be
considerably thickened to form restraining bands
called retinacula
– Their function is to hold underlying tendons in
position or to serve as pulleys around which the
tendons may move
 Introduction to
SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Human skeleton
• The skeleton is composed of a living, dynamic, rigid
connective tissue that forms the bones and
cartilages.
• Generally, humans have about 214 bones, although
this number varies particularly in the number of
small sesamoid bones that may be present.
• Cartilage is attached to some bones, especially
where flexibility is important, or covers the surfaces
of some bones at points of articulation.
 Descriptive Regions
The human skeleton is divided into 2 descriptive
regions:
1. Axial skeleton:
– bones of the skull, vertebral column (spine), ribs &
sternum
– which form the “axis” or central line of the body
– (80 bones)
2. Appendicular skeleton:
– bones of the limbs, including the pectoral and pelvic
girdles,
– which attach the limbs to the body’s axis
– (134 bones)
 functions of bones
1. Support
2. Protection of vital organs
3. A mechanism, along with muscles, for
movement
4. Storage of calcium and other salts:
– about 99% of the body’s calcium is stored in bone
5. A source of blood cells:
– many bones possess a central cavity that contains
bone marrow—a collection of hemopoietic (blood-
forming) cells
 There are two types of bone:
1. Compact: a relatively solid mass of bone,
commonly seen as a superficial layer of bone,
that provides strength
2. Spongy (trabecular or cancellous): a less
dense trabeculated network of bone spicules
making up the substance of most bones and
surrounding an inner marrow cavity
 Shapes of Bones
Most of the bones can be classified into one of 5
shapes:
1. Long
2. Short
3. Flat
4. Irregular
5. Sesamoid
Bone
Classification
Based Upon
Their Shape:
 Thank U 

Next class: continue skeletal system

on mon 1 Dec