DATA ANALYSIS AND

INTERPRETATION

PRESENTED TO: DR MUHAMMAD IQBAL

PRESENTED BY: SYED KAMRAN ALI SHAH

INTRODUCTION

In any research, the step of analysis of the

data is one of the most crucial tasks
requiring proficient knowledge to handle
the data collected as per the pre decided
research design of the project. The purpose
of data analysis is to answer the research
questions and to help determine the trends
and relationships among the variables. This
process involves determination of method
of data analysis, processing of data,
preparation of tables and graphs, and
finally analysis and interpretation of data.
WHAT IS DATA

 According to Data Webster’s New Collegiate

Dictionary (1973) data is factual information,
which is used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or calculation.
 According to Merriam Webster Online
Dictionary (http://www.m-w.com) data is
information in numerical form that can be
digitally transmitted or processed.
TYPES OF DATA

Quantitative data
 In this type, data is shown in numbers and
those numbers can be large or small.

Qualitative data
 Here the data is represented either in a verbal
or descriptive format.
DATA ANALYSIS

 It is such a process in which we inspect, clean,

transform, and model the data keeping the
objectives of our research into consideration.
CHARACTERISTICS

 The researcher should know that data

analysis depends upon type of research.
 The researcher should have sufficient
knowledge of particular area of research.
 The researcher should aware the type and
nature of data being collected, for the
purpose of analysis.
 Data analysis and interpretation design
should be finalized before actual data
collection.
METHODS

Quantitative research data analysis

In quantitative research, we use experiments
and questionnaires for data collection.

Qualitative research data analysis

In case of qualitative research, interviews and
observations are used.
TECHNIQUES

DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
 Here the researcher collects data from
subjects, uses statistical tools of percentage
and means and then represents it through a
graph.
CONTD.

INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS

 It uses a number of test s of significance for

testing hypotheses in order to determine
some conclusion or conclusions.
TOOLS FOR QUANTITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
Frequency Distribution
 It is a systematic arrangement of numeric values from the lowest to the highest
or highest to lowest.
Mode
 It is a numeric value in a distribution that occurs most frequently.
Median
 It is an index of average position in a distribution of numbers.
Mean
 It is the point on the score scale that is equal to the sum of the scores divided by
the total number of scores.

Range
 It is the distance between the highest score and the lowest score in a
distribution.
CONTD.
Standard Deviation
 It is the most commonly used measure of variability that indicates the
average to which the scores deviate from the mean.
Correlation
 It is the most common method of describing the relationship between
two measures.
t-test
 This test is used to examine the difference between the means of two
independent groups.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
 It is used to test the significance of differences between means of two or
more groups.
Chi-square
 It is used to test hypotheses about the proportion of elements that fall
into various cells of a contingency table.
TECHNIQUES FOR QUALITATIVE
DATA ANALYSIS
Content Analysis:
 It is a procedure used for categorizing verbal
or behavioral data for the purpose of
classification, summarization and tabulation.
It has two levels
 Descriptive what is the data?
 Interpretative: what was meant by the data?
CONTD.

Narrative Analysis
 These are transcribed experiences. The
researcher has to sort-out and reflects up the
narrative aspects of every interviewee. He
enhances them and presents them in a
revised shape to the reader. It is used to
reformulate stories presented by people in
different contexts and based on their
different experiences.
CONTD.

Discourse Analysis
 This method is used to analyze a spoken
interaction and all types of written texts. It
focuses on how people express themselves
verbally in their everyday social life.
CONTD.

Framework Analysis
 Here the researcher familiarizes with the
data, Identifies a thematic framework, uses
numerical codes to identify specific piece of
data and prepares charts using headings from
thematic framework. Afterwards mapping
and interpretation is done up to search for
patterns, associations, concept explanations
in the data.
CONTD.
Grounded Theory:
 It starts with an examination of a single case from a ‘pre-
defined’ population in order to formulate a general
statement (concept or a hypothesis) about a population.
Afterwards the analyst examines another case to see
whether the hypothesis fits the statement. If it does, a
further case is selected but if it doesn’t fit there are two
options: Either the statement is changed to fit both cases
or the definition of the population is changed in such a way
that the case is no longer a member of the newly defined
population. Then another case is selected and the process
continues. In such a way one should be able to arrive at a
statement that fits all cases of a population-as-defined.
DATA INTERPRETATION

It refers to the implementation of processes

through which data is reviewed for the
purpose of arriving at an informed
conclusion. It provides a meaning to the
information analyzed and determines its
signification and implications.
IMPORTANCE OF DATA ANALYSIS

The purpose of collection and interpretation is to

acquire useful and usable information and to
make the most informed decisions possible.
Data analysis and interpretation, regardless of
method and qualitative/quantitative status, may
include the following characteristics:
 Data identification and explanation
 Comparing and contrasting of data
 Identification of data outliers
 Future predictions
SUMMARY
 Data analysis and interpretation is very important as to
develop sound conclusions and make better informed
decisions. Here is a list summary of how to analyze and
interpret data:
 Data collection and its cleanliness.
 Selection of type of data analysis to perform (qualitative,
quantitative or mixed)
 Application of the method for analysis.
 Qualitative analysis involves observation, documentation
and interview notice, collection and thinks about things.
 Quantitative analysis involves mean, standard deviation or
frequency distribution for instance.
 Reflect your own thinking and reasoning about all the
analysis being done