The Respiratory System

Overview
• Functions of the Respiratory • Respiratory Physiology
System – Pulmonary ventilation
• Organization of the Respiratory – Gas exchange
System – Gas transport
– The respiratory tract • The Control of Respiration
– The nose – Local control
– The pharynx – Respiratory centers of the
– The larynx brain
– The trachea – Reflex control of respiration
– The bronchi – Control by higher centers
– The bronchioles
– The alveolar ducts and alveoli
– The respiratory membrane
– The lungs
– The pleural cavity
Functions of the Respiratory System
• Provides large area for gas exchange between air and
circulating blood
• Moves air to and from the gas-exchange surfaces of
lungs
• Protects:
– Respiratory surfaces from dehydration and temp changes
– Provides nonspecific defenses against invading pathogens
• Produces sounds permitting speech, singing, and
nonverbal communication
• Provides olfactory sensations to the CNS for sense of
smell
Organization of Respiratory System
• Nose
• Nasal cavities
• Paranasal sinuses
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi and lungs
– Bronchioles
– Alveoli
 Respiratory Membrane
• Consists of 3 components
– Squamous epithelium lining alveolus
– Endothelial cells lining capillary
– Fused basement membrane between
alveolus and endothelial cells
• Very rapid diffusion due to
– Short distance
– Solubility of oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Both are lipid soluble
 Respiratory Physiology
• 3 steps
– Pulmonary ventilation
• Breathing; involves physical movement of air into
and out of lungs
– Gas exchange
• Gas diffusion across respiratory membrane and
capillary and other cells
– Gas transport
• Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
alveolar capillaries and capillary beds in other
tissues
 Pulmonary Ventilation
• Respiratory cycle
– Single breath
– Consists of:
• Inspiration
• exhalation
 Pulmonary Ventilation: Pressure
and Airflow to the Lungs
• Pressure gradient between atmosphere and lungs
– Occur when volume of lung changes
• Volume dependent on volume of pleural cavities
• Movement of thoracic wall or diaphragm directly affects
volume in lungs
– Diaphragm forms floor of thoracic cavity
• Relaxed: dome shaped; projects up into thoracic cavity and
compresses lungs (decreases volume; increases pressure)
• Contracted: flattens; increases volume of thoracic cavity (expansion
of lungs)
– Thoracic wall (rib cage)
• Elevation of rib cage: increases volume of thoracic cavity
– External intercostals, sternocleidomastoid
• Lowering rib cage: decreases volume
– Internal intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles
 Modes of Breathing
• Quiet Breathing
– Inhalation requires muscles
• Contraction of diaphragm (75%), external intercostals (25%)
– Exhalation passive
• Lungs recoil due to elasticity
• Forced Breathing
– Inhalation
• Accessory muscles include sternocleidomastoid and
scalenes (muscles of the neck)
– Exhalation
• Internal intercostals, abdominal muscles
 Lung Volumes and Capacities
• Tidal Volume
– Amount of air moved into or out of lungs
during a single respiratory cycle
– 500 mL
• Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
– Amount of air that can be voluntarily expelled at end
of tidal cycle
– 1000 mL
• Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
– Amount of air taken in over and above tidal volume
– Males: 3300 mL; Females: 1900 mL
 Lung Volumes and Capacities
• Vital Capacity
– Maximum amount of air that can be moved into and out of the
respiratory system in a single respiratory cycle
– Sum of IRV + ERV + Tidal Volume
• Residual Volume
– Air that is not exhaled even after expiratory reserve volume
– 1200 mL in alveoli, resp passageways
– Exists because lungs held against thoracic wall
• Prevents elastic fibers from further contracting
• Minimal Volume
– Occurs when chest cavity opened (pneumothorax)
– Minimal volume air left in lungs due to surfactant preventing
alveoli from collapsing
 Gas Exchange

• Alveoli supplied with oxygen; carbon

dioxide removed from bloodstream
• Occurs on respiratory membrane
• Depends on:
– Partial pressures of gases involved
– Diffusion of molecules from gas into a liquid
 Mixed Gases and Paritial
Pressures
• Atmospheric pressure at sea level = 760
mm Hg
• Atmosphere made up of different gases
– One gas alone makes up partial pressure
• Sum of all partial pressures = atm pressure
• Partial pressure determines rate of
diffusion
 Partial Pressures within the
Circulatory System
• External respiration
– Diffusion of gases between the alveoli and
capillaries across respiratory membrane
• Internal respiration
– Diffusion of gases between cells and
capillaries
 Gas Transport
• RBCs remove dissolved O2 and CO2 from
plasma (limited solubility)
– Binds (O2)
– Manufactures soluble compounds (CO2)
• Reactions temporary and easily reversible
• Plasma gas concentrations high, excess
removed by RBC
• Plasma concentrations low, RBCs release
reserve
 Oxygen Transport
• 98.5% oxygen bound to iron heme in hemoglobin (Hb)
• Reversible reaction
Hb + O2 ↔ HbO2
• Amount O2 bound or released by Hb depends on:
– Partial pressure of oxygen
– Temperature
– pH
• PO2 in surroundings
– The lower the O2 content in tissues, the more O2 is released by Hb in
nearby capillaries
• Temperature
– Hb releases more O2 when temp rises
• pH
– Active tissues lower pH of ISF
– When pH declines, Hb release bound O2 more readily
 Carbon Dioxide Transport
• Generated by aerobic metabolism
• Enters bloodstream and either:
– Dissolves in plasma
– Binds to Hb of RBC
– Converted to molecule of carbonic acid
(H2CO3)
• All three completely reversible
 Carbon Dioxide Transport
• Plasma Transport
– 7% absorbed in peripheral capillaries is
transported as a dissolved gas
• Hemoglobin Binding
– Some are bound to globin in Hb
• Forms carbaminohemoglobin
– Does not interfere with binding of O2
– Carbon dioxide partial pressure low in
pulmonary capillaries
• Released from Hb
 Carbon Dioxide Transport:
Carbonic Acid Formation
• Most converted to carbonic acid
– Enzyme is carbonic anhydrase
– Carbonic acid is then broken down to a
hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-

• Happens quickly and continuously

• Once dropped off in alveoli, reactions occur in
other direction
 Control of Respiration
• Normal conditions: cellular rates of absorption
and generation are equal to capillary rates of
delivery and removal
• If unbalanced, homeostasis must be maintained
by cardiovascular and respiratory systems
• Mechanisms involve:
– Changes in blood flow and oxygen delivery under
local control
– Changes in depth and rate of respiration under
control of brain’s respiratory centers
 Local Control of Respiration
• Rate of delivery and efficiency of oxygen pick up
regulated locally
• Activity in peripheral tissues
– ISF ↓ PO2 and ↑ PcO2
• more O2 delivered; more CO2 carried away (also results in
vasodilation)
• Local adjustments in lungs
– Precapillary sphincters direct blood to alveoli when
PO2 is high (constrict when low)
– Bronchodilation in response to high PCO2
• Directs airflow to lobules
Respiratory Centers of the Brain
• Found in 3 pairs of basal nuclei in medulla and
pons
– Medulla contains respiratory rhythmicity centers
• Set pace for respiration
– Pons adjusts rate and depth in response to sensory
stimuli, emotions, speech
• Control both voluntary and involuntary
• Involuntary center in brain controls:
– Respiratory muscles
– Respiratory rate
• 12-18 breaths/min (normal adult)
– Respiratory depth
Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers
• Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
– Contains inspiratory center
– Functions in every respiratory cycle
• Ventral respiratory group (VRG)
– Contains expiratory center
– Used only during forced breathing
• Can be affected by any factor that alters
metabolic or chem act of neural tissue
– Increase: Elevated body temp, stimulants (meth,
caffeine)
– Decrease: low body temp, depressants (opiates,
alcohol)
 Reflex Control of Respiration
• Normal breathing automatic
• Activities of respiratory centers modified
by sensory information from
mechanoreceptors
– Stretch receptors
– Pressure (baro)receptors
– Chemoreceptors
• Info from the receptors alter pattern of
respiration
 Mechanoreceptors
• Respond to changes in volume of lungs or to
changes in arterial blood pressure
• Hering-Breuer reflexes
– Only involved in forced breathing
– Inflation reflex (stretch receptors and vagus nerve)
• Prevents lungs from over expanding during forced breathing
• Vol of lungs increase, inspiratory center gradually inhibited,
expiratory stimulated
– Deflation reflex
• Inhibits expiratory center; stimulates inspiratory center
 Baroreceptors
• Carotid and aortic baroreceptors
• Affects respiratory centers, cardiac
centers, vasomotor centers
• ↓ bp ↑resp rate
– Adjustment results from stimulation or
inhibition of inspiratory and expiratory centers
in glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves
 Chemoreceptor Reflexes
• Respond to chemical changes in blood, CSF
• Centers:
– Carotid bodies and aortic bodies
• Sensitive to pH, PCO2, PO2 in arterial blood
– Medulla
• Sensitive to pH and PCO2 in CSF
• Stimulation
• Stimulation: increase in depth and rate of
respiration
 Chemoreceptor Reflexes
• Much more sensitive to changes in PCO2
than PO2
– Due to small increase in PCO2 stimulates
receptors (regulates under normal conditions)
• PO2 generally does not decline enough to stimulate
receptor
– Cannot hold your breath
 Control by Higher Centers
• Influence respiration through effects on resp
centers of pons and directly through resp
muscles
• Contractions of resp muscles can be voluntarily
suppressed or exaggerated (talking, singing)
• Resp rate can change following activation of
limbic system and hypothalamus (rage, eating,
sexual arousal)
– involuntary