Airport 2074

Introduction
To
Airport Engineering
Hemant Tiwari
12/14/2018 Hemant Tiwari 1

Airport Engineering
• It deals with the design, development,

production, operation and use of aerodrome
and aircraft too.

Design Issues
Aircraft, Runways,
Taxiways, Aprons
Air Traffic
Configuration Control
General Layout
Components
Geometric Design
Lighting
Wind Analysis
Obstruction Analysis Airport Signing
CNS/ATM
Design
Pavement Design
Soils Rehabilitation
Evaluation
Materials Maintenance
Drainage Overlays
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Thickness Hemant Tiwari 3
Aviation Terminology
• Aircraft: Any machine that can derive support
in the atmosphere from the reactions of the
air other than the reactions of the air against
the earth’s surface.
• Aeroplane: A power-driven heavier than air

aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which
remain fixed under given conditions of flight.

Civil Aviation
• Commercial Service Aviation
– Major Airlines
– Regional Airline
– Air taxi operators
– International air transportation
• Air Cargo
• General Aviation

Organization Related to Civil Aviation
• Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal (CAAN)
• International Civil Aviation Organization.

(ICAO)
• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

Terminology
• Aerodrome. A defined area on land or water (including
any buildings, installations and equipment) intended to
be used either wholly or in part for the arrival,
departure and surface movement of aircraft as per
ICAO.
• Airport: Certified Aerodrome under further

development gets complicated and called Airport.
(Though different meaning at different country)
canadian civil aviation authority
• All Airports are aerodrome but all Aerodrome are not

airports.
•
• Runway. A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome

prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft.
• Taxiway. A defined path on a land aerodrome established

for the taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link
between one part of the aerodrome and another
• Apron. A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to

accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading or
unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling, parking or
maintenance.
• Heliport. An aerodrome or a defined area on a structure

intended to be used wholly or in part for the arrival,
departure and surface movement of helicopters.

• Holding bay. A defined area where aircraft can be held, or bypassed, to
facilitate efficient surface movement of aircraft.
• Landing area. That part of a movement area intended for the landing or
take-off of aircraft.
• Manoeuvring area. That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-

off, landing and taxiing of aircraft, excluding aprons.
• Movement area. That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off,

landing and taxiing of aircraft, consisting of the manoeuvring area and
the apron(s).
• Threshold. The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for

landing.
• Usability factor. The percentage of time during which the use of a runway
or system of runways is not restricted because of the crosswind
component.

Roles of Air Transportation
• Improves accessibility to otherwise inaccessible areas
• Provides continuous connectivity over land and water
(no change of equipment)
• Saves productive time, spent on journey
• Adds to the foreign reserve through tourism
• Promotion of trade and commerce
• Military use
• Relief and rescue operations
• Aerial photography
• Agricultural spraying
• Safety: safe mode of transport.
Safety
 Air transport has a strong tradition of giving
top priority to safety.
Year Number of passenger fatalities per 100

million passenger-kilometres flown
1960 0.8
1980 0.08
1990 0.03
2005 0.02
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Aviation HIstory
• Started in 1949
• 1950 - first flight
• 1957 – Grassy runway converted to concrete
• 1957 - Civil Aviation was established
• 1958 – RA started schedule for both domestic &
International flight.
• 1960 – ICAO membership
• 1975 – TIA runway extended to 10000 feet
and so on……
Classification of Airport
• 1. Based on Function:
 Civil Aviation Airport

Domestic Airports
International Airport
Combination of both International & Domestic Airport
 Military Aviation Airport

2. Based on Take off and Landing:
Conventional Take off & Landing Airport
(L>1500m)
Reduced Take off & Landing Airport (L 1000-
1500m)
Short Take off & Landing (STOL) Airport (L <
1000m)
Vertical Take off & Landing Airport (VTOL) ( Area
25-50sq m)

• Wing Span – tip to tip of the wing
• Outer main gear wheel span – Outer to outer distance

between front and rear wheel
• Wheel base distance between the nose gear and the main
landing gear
• Aeroplane Reference Field Length – Maximum certified

length at standard atmospheric condition (0 degree slope,
15 deg Celsius, concrete Paving Surface, at Sea level) for a
particular aircraft to take off at maximum certified weight.
(annex 14)
Outer main gear wheel span

Physical Characteristics of aircrafts

3. Classification based on Airplane Reference Field
Length and Wing Span and outer main gear wheel span
Aerodrome Reference Code
Code element 1 Code element 2
Code Aeroplane reference Code Wing span Outer main gear
Number field length letter wheel span
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 Less than 800 m A Up to but not Up to but not
including 15 m including 4.5 m
2 800 m up to but not B 15 m up to but not 4.5 m up to but not
including 1200 m including 24 m including 6 m
3 1200 m up to but not C 24 m up to but not 6 m up to but not
including 1800 m including 36 m including 9 m
4 1800 m and over D 36 m up to but not 9 m up to but not
including 52 m including 14 m
E 52 m up to but not 9 m up to but not
including 65 m including 14 m
F 65 m up to but not 14 m up to but not
12/14/2018 Hemantincluding
Tiwari 80 m including 16 m 20
ICAO Aerodrome Reference Code
S. Aircraft type Code Code Element 2 Aerodrome
No Element 1 reference
code
Aeroplane Code Wing OMGWS, Code
reference No. span, m letter
field m
length, m
1. ATR 42-200 1010 24.6 4.9

2 C 2C
2. Fokker: 50 1760 29.0 8.0
3 C 3C
3. A 320-200 2058 33.9 8.7
4 C 4C
4. A 340-300 2200 60.3 12
4 E 4E

Engine
• To provide the thrust i.e. power requires for
the movement of aircraft in air
• Types:
1. Piston Engine
2. Jet Engine
Turbo Jet
Turbo Prop
Ram jet
3. Rocket Engine
Piston Engine
• Powered by Gasoline
• Driven by Propeller or airscrew
• Suitable for Low altitude & moderate speed
• Problem of colling
• Steps
Shaft is rotated & Torque is generated.
Propeller is mounted on shaft and absorb torque
Attain speed and thus huge mass is pushed
rearwards & thus lift generated that pull the
aircraft.
Jet Engine:
Advantages:
• Free from vibration
• No radiators
• No spark plug
• Less consumption of lubricant
• Simple process (No transmission or conversion
mechanism is required)

Turbo Jet
Steps:
• Compressor is rotated with motor.
• After compressor gain speed, it suck in air
through air intake, compressed it in compression
chamber.
• Air ignited by fuel
• Expanding gas is pass through the fan like blade
of turbine.
• Hot glass escape through tail pipe and provide
forward thrust.

Principle of Jet Engine

Turbo Prop
• Similar to turbo jet engine except propeller is
provided
• Turbine extracts enough power to drive both
compressor and propeller.

Ram Jet
• Operated at high speed.
• Require assistance of other power plant to

reach operating speed
• Heated air expands and comes out of nozzle at

high speed creating thrust

Principle of Ram jet

Rocket Engine
• Provide thrust in same way as the ram jet
• Only difference is that atmospheric oxygen
• No limit on altitude

Aeroplane Components

Component of Aircraft

Function of The component Parts

Force Acting on Aircraft

Components of Aircraft:
1. Engine
Provides thrust
2. Fuselage
 Main body of aircraft
 Provide space for power plant, fuel, cockpit
passenger, cargo
3. Wings:
 Governs area of lift

4. Three Control
A. Elevator:
Consists flap capable of moving up & down
through an angle
Control pitch of aircraft
B. Rudder:
Provided at tail end of fuselage
Utilized for turning movement
C. Aileron:
Hinged flab in trailing end of wing
Used for rolling movement of control
5. Tricycle Under Carriage:
To support aircraft while in contact with ground
To absorb landing shock
To enable the aircraft to maneuver on the ground

Types of Assembly:

Aircraft Characteristics:
• Engine type and propulsion

• Size of aircraft
• Minimum turning radius
• Minimum circling radius in space
• Speed of aircraft
• Capacity of the aircraft
• Aircraft weight & wheel configuration
• Jet Blast (Aircraft eject hot exhaust gases)
• Noise
Aircraft Characteristics

Figure of Minimum Turning Radius

Considerations while selecting airport site
• Consistency with Regional plan
• Operational capability: airspace considerations,
obstructions, weather etc.
• Airport use: military, civil, etc.
• Proximity to other airport: minimum spacing
between two airports:
• Ground accessibility:. It is desirable to locate
airport adjacent to the highway (should not
exceed 30 min).
• Topography: hill top is most suitable
• Visibility: free from fog. sufficient sight distance
• Wind: runway orientation should be: landing
and takeoff is done by heading into wind.
• Noise nuisance: landing and takeoff path
should not pas over the residential or
industrial areas.
• Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
• Future development
• Availabilities of utilities from town
• Economic considerations
Predicting Air Travel Demand
We need to estimate:
• Annual Passenger Volume

• Annual Volume of Air Traffic
• Air Cargo
• Peak day or peak hour volume of passenger or
air cargo
• Both Arrival as well as departure volume

Process of Forecasting:
Graphical Trend Forecasting
Demand based on Historical trend

T = To*(1+r)^n
Demand based on economical model

GDP, population, production, per capita income
Analytical Model
Trip generation, Distribution, Model choice

Global Passenger Forecasts
Source: ICAO
Global Freight Forecasts
Source: ICAO
Passenger Traffic Forecast – Comparison
[Passenger-Kilometers (Billions)]
2005 2025 Av. Annual
Growth Rate,
Percent
World 3720 9180 4.6
Asia-Pacific 967.4 2980 5.8

Region
Regional Share 26 32.5
of the World
Source: ICAO
Airport Layout
Includes:
• Number and orientation of runways
• Number of taxiways
• Size and shape of aprons
• The area and shape of land
• Topography, Meteorology and site soil conditions
• Obstacle to air navigation
• Required proximity of land uses.
• Timing and scale of phased development of the airport
• Size and scale of airport facilities being planned

Component of AIrport
Two components of airport:

→ Airside
→ Landside

Airside Elements
→ Runway(s)
→ Stopway(s)]
→ Taxiway(s)
→ Apron(s)
→ Holding bay(s)
→ Isolated Aircraft Parking Area
→ Airfield Drainage
→ Aerodrome Control Tower
→ Buildings for Radio Navigation Aids
→ Electrical Sub-stations
→ Rescue and Fire Fighting Complexes
→ Aircraft Maintenance Hangars
Airside View of Airport

Airside Elements
Airside Elements
Runway, taxiways and apron

Airside Elements
Typical holding bay Holding bays at different locations

Landside Elements
→ Terminals (Passenger terminal or Cargo terminal)
→ Administration and Maintenance Buildings
→ Fuel Farm
→ Airport Hotels Power/Generator Houses
→ Sewerage Treatment and Pump Stations
→ Security Fences and Control Gates
→ Car Parks
→ Access Roads
Landside Elements

Landside Elements

FACTORS RELATING TO THE SITING, ORIENTATION AND
NUMBER OF RUNWAYS
a) Weather (runway/aerodrome usability factor,

as determined by wind distribution)
b) Topography of the aerodrome site and its
surroundings;
c) Type and amount of air traffic to be served,
including air traffic control aspects;
d) Aeroplane performance considerations;
e) Enviromental considérations, (noise)
Head winds
The direction of wind opposite to the direction of

landing & take off
Provides greater lift on the wings of aircraft when
it is taking off
During landing, the head wind provides a braking
effects, aircraft comes to a stop in a smaller
length of runway
(If landing or take off is done along wind direction,

it may require greater runway length.)
CROSS WIND
• The wind may blow making certain angle with
centre line of runway.
• The normal component of the wind (V SinØ) is
Cross Wind Component
• It adversely effect on the performance of
aircraft by interrupting the safe landing and
take off

Wind Coverage
• The percentage of time in a year during which
the Cross Wind Component remains within
the limit is called Wind Coverage.
• FAA standards for mixed air traffic wind

coverage should be 95 %
• For busy airport, WC may be 98 -100 %

Wind Rose
The wind data ( Direction, duration and
intensity) graphically represented by a diagram
called Wind Rose
Helps in analyzing wind data and obtaining the

most suitable direction of the runway
5-10 year data is required preferably at the site

to be selected.
• Wind Rose type I: It is the graphical
representation of wind data: direction and
duration.
• Wind Rose type II: It is the graphical

representation of wind data: direction,
duration and intensity.

Wind Rose type I
• Radial line indicates Wind direction
• Each circle represents duration of wind
• Percentage of time for each direction is
plotted on each radial line
• All plotted line are joined by straight line
• The best direction of runway is usually along
the direction of longest line on wind rose
diagram
Wind Rose Type I

Wind Rose type II
• Each circle represent wind intensity to some
scale.
• Values entered in each segment represent %
of time in year during which wind of particular
intensity blows from the respective direction.
• Permissible cross wind component is assumed
• Various orientation can be checked and those
giving highest value is selected.

Wind Data

Wind Rose

Option of Wind Rose
Runway Designation 09-27 covers 90.8%

12/14/2018
Runway Designation 03-21 covers 96.6 %
Hemant Tiwari 77
FACTORS AFFECTING THE LENGTH OF
RUNWAYS
• performance characteristics and operating
masses of the aeroplanes to be served;
• weather, particularly surface wind and
temperature;
• runway characteristics such as slope and surface
condition; and
• aerodrome location factors, for example,
aerodrome elevation which affects the
barometric pressure and topographical
constraints.
• The greater the head wind down a runway, the
shorter the runway length required by an
aeroplane taking off or landing
• The higher the temperature, the longer the runway
required because higher temperatures create lower
air densities resulting in lower output of thrust and
reduced lift
• An aeroplane taking off on an uphill gradient
requires more runway length than it would on a
level or downhill gradient
• the higher the elevation of the aerodrome with
correspondingly lower barometric pressure, the
longer the runway required
Definitions
Runway: A defined rectangular area on a land
aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off of
aircraft.
Longitudinal slope on Runway (effective gradient).
The slope computed by dividing the difference between
the maximum and minimum elevation along the
runway centre line by the runway length.

Definitions
Aerodrome reference temperature. The aerodrome
reference temperature is the monthly mean of the daily
maximum temperatures for the hottest month of the
year.
 The hottest month being that which has the highest
monthly mean temperature.
This temperature should be averaged over a period of
years.

Table of Standard Atmosphere Values
Altitude (m) Temperature (◦ C) Pressure (Kg/m3)
0 15.00 1.23
500 11.75 1.17
1000 8.50 1.11
1500 5.25 1.06
2000 2.00 1.01
2500 -1.25 0.96
3000 -4.50 0.91
3500 -7.75 0.86
4000 -10.98 0.82
4500 -14.23 0.78
5000 -17.47 0.74
5500 -20.72 0.70
6000 -23.96 0.66
Declared distances
• TODA
• TORA
• ASDA
• LDA

Runway(s)
Actual length of runways
V1 – Decision Speed
V2 – Take-off Safety Speed
VR- Rotation Speed
VLOF-Lift-off Speed

Aerodrome Design
Geometric Design of the Aerodrome
Calculation of declared distances. The declared distances must be
calculated in accordance with the following:
(i) Take-off run available (TORA) is defined as the length of runway
available for the ground run of an aeroplane taking off. This is normally the
full length of the runway; neither the SWY nor CWY are involved.
TORA = Length of RWY

Aerodrome Design
Calculation of declared distances.
(ii) Take-off distance available (TODA) is defined as the distance
available to an aeroplane for completion of its ground run, lift-off and
initial climb to 35 ft.
 This will normally be the full length of the runway plus the length of
any CWY.
TODA =TORA + CWY

Aerodrome Design
Calculation of declared distances (continued)
(iii) Accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA) is defined as the length of
the take-off run available plus the length of any SWY. Any CWY is not
involved.
ASDA = TORA + SWY

Aerodrome Design
Calculation of declared distances (continued)
(iv) Landing distance available (LDA) is defined as the length of runway
available for the ground run of a landing aeroplane.
The LDA commences at the runway threshold.
Neither SWY nor CWY are involved.
LDA = Length of RW (if threshold is not displaced.)

Aerodrome Design
Landing distance available when threshold is displaced.
LDA = Length of RWY – Length of Displaced threshold

Aerodrome Design
Physical Characteristics
Width of runways
Recommendation.— The width of a runway should be not less than
the appropriate dimension specified in the following tabulation:
Code Code letter

number A B C D E F
1ª 18 m 18 m 23 m - - -
2ª 23 m 23 m 30 m - - -
3 30 m 30 m 30 m 45 m - -
4 - - 45 m 45 m 45 m 60 m
a. The width of a precision approach runway should be not less than
30 m where the code number is 1 or 2.
Longitudinal Slope
Transverse Slope

Taxiway & Apron

Functional Requirements of taxiway
1. Maximum capacity and efficiency of an aerodrome
by proper balance between the need for runways,
passenger and cargo terminals, and aircraft storage
and servicing areas. These separate and distinct
aerodrome functional elements are linked by the
taxiway system.
2. The taxiway system should be designed to

minimize the restriction of aircraft movement to and
from the runways and apron areas.
Principal of Taxiway Design
a) Taxiway routes should connect various aerodrome elements by
the shortest distances, thus minimizing both taxiing time and cost
b) Taxiway routes should be as simple as possible in order to
avoid pilot confusion and the need for complicated instructions
c) Straight runs should be used wherever possible. Where
changes in direction are necessary, curves of adequate radii with
extra taxiway width to ensure taxiing at the maximum practical
speed
d) Taxiway crossings should be avoided in perspective of safety
and reducing delay
e) Taxiway routings should have as many one-way segments
f) Taxiway system should be planned to maximize the useful life
of each component so that future phase of development
incorporate sections from the current
Design Criteria for Taxiways

TAXIWAY CURVE

AIRCRAFT SPEED VERSUS RADIUS OF
CURVE

Cockpit always over taxiway centre line

EXTRA WIDENING AT TAXIWAY

Rapid Exit Taxiway

Layout of RET

Holding Bay
Typical holding bay Holding bays at different locations

Tribhuvan International Airport
• Coordinates - 274150N - 0852128E

• Elevation – 1338m AMSL
• Reference Temperature - 27.8 C
• Runway Designation - 02/20
• Runway Dimension – 3050mx 45 m
• Apron Capacity - Int'l - 9 Medium and Wide Body
Category Aircraft
• Domestic - 15 Small Aircraft
Planning and Design of the
Terminal Area
Terminal Area
The terminal area is the major interface
between the airfield and the rest of the
airport.
Terminal area includes the facilities for

passenger and baggage processing, cargo
handling and airport maintenance, operations
and administration activities

The Passenger Terminal System
 Major connection between the ground
access system and the aircraft.
Provide the interface between the passenger
airport access mode, to process the passenger
for origination , termination or continuation of
the air transportation trip, and convey the
passenger and baggage to and from the
aircraft.

Components of the Passenger
Terminal System
The access interface
The processing system (ticketing, check-in,

baggage claim, security)
The flight interface

The passenger terminal performs three main
functions:
1. Change of mode (one flight to another)
2. Processing
3. Change of movement type (arrival departure

by bus, taxi)

Design Considerations
1. Development and sizing to accomplish the
stated mission of the airport with the
parameters defined in the master plan.
2. Capability to meet the demands for the
medium- and long-run time frames.
3. Functional, practical, and financial feasibility.
4. Maximize the use of existing facilities

Design Considerations
5. Achievement of a balanced flow between
access, terminal and airfield facilities during
the peak hour.
6. Consideration of environmental sensitivity
7. Maintenance of the flexibility to meet future
requirements beyond the current planning
horizon.
8. Capability to anticipate and implement
significant improvement in aviation
technology.
The Terminal Planning Process
The evolution and development of a terminal
design is performed in a series of integrated
steps. These are:
1. Programming
2. Concept Development
3. Schematic Design
4. Design Development

Horizontal Distribution Concepts for
Passenger Terminals
a) Linear/Open apron
b) Pier
c) Satellite
d) Transporter/Remote apron

Air Traffic Control (ATC)
• Prevent Aircraft Collisions
• Prevent Aircraft Collisions with

Obstructions
• Expedite and Maintain an orderly

flow of air traffic
Flight Rules
• Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
• Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)

Visual Flight Rules (VRF)
Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC)
– At least 3 miles (5 km) visibility and
– Cloud Ceiling at least 1000 ft (300 m) AGL
Aircraft separation by visual means
May request air traffic control assistance
May file a flight plan

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
– Instrument meteorological condidtions (IMC)\
• Less than 3 miles (5 km) visibility, and/or
• Cloud ceiling less than 1,000 ft (300m) AGL
– Air traffic control maintains separation between

aircraft
– Must file a flight plan

Pavement design
• Convention method
• FAARField method

Aerodrome Design
Visual Aids for Navigation:
→ Markings
↗ Runway markings are white.
↗ Taxiway markings are yellow.
Runway Markings
12/14/2018 Taxiway Markings
Hemant Tiwari 138
Aerodrome Markings

Aerodrome Design
Visual Aids for Navigation
→ Runway Lights
↗ Approach lights are white
↗ Runway centreline and edge lights are white.
↗ Runway end lights are red.
↗ Runway threshold lights are green.
→ Taxiway Lights
↗ Taxiway edge lights are blue.
↗ Taxiway centreline lights are green.

Aerodrome Design
Visual Aids for Navigation
Signs:
→ Mandatory Instruction Signs
→ Information Signs
Mandatory instruction signs Information signs

References
Lectures Notes of Padma Shahi
Lectures slides of Punya Raj Shakya
Airport Planning & Design – S.K Khanna
ICAO Annex 14
Planning and Design of Airport– Robert
Horonjeff
Airport Engineering – G.L GLushkov


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Introduction

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• It deals with the design, development,

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• Aeroplane: A power-driven heavier than air

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• Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal (CAAN)

• International Civil Aviation Organization.

• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

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• Airport: Certified Aerodrome under further

• All Airports are aerodrome but all Aerodrome are not

• Runway. A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome

• Taxiway. A defined path on a land aerodrome established

• Apron. A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to

• Heliport. An aerodrome or a defined area on a structure

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• Manoeuvring area. That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-

• Movement area. That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off,

• Threshold. The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for

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Year Number of passenger fatalities per 100

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 Civil Aviation Airport

 Military Aviation Airport

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• Outer main gear wheel span – Outer to outer distance

• Aeroplane Reference Field Length – Maximum certified

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1. ATR 42-200 1010 24.6 4.9

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• Require assistance of other power plant to

• Heated air expands and comes out of nozzle at

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• Only difference is that atmospheric oxygen

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To support aircraft while in contact with ground

To absorb landing shock

To enable the aircraft to maneuver on the ground

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• Engine type and propulsion

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• Annual Passenger Volume

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Demand based on Historical trend

Demand based on economical model

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Asia-Pacific 967.4 2980 5.8

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