Aggression

Neural and Hormonal mechanisms in aggression

Role of the limbic system –
• Involves the amygdala, hippocampus and hypothalamus – implicated In reactive aggression
• Limbic system helps regulate emotional behaviour including aggression.
• Limbic system is connected to our cingulate gyrus – responsible for how we focus our
attention on an emotionally significant event (how we react)
• Limbic system has connections to the prefrontal cortex – involved in forward planning and
anticipation for reward.
• The LS plays a key role in how organisms responds to environmental threats and challenges.
Damage to your :
Amygdala (processes emotions) = not interpreting and monitoring which triggers an
emotional response.
Hippocampus – inappropriate aggressive response to a stimulus.
Research – Wong – MRI with 19 violent male prisoners and 20 normal control group.
Criminals has a significantly smaller amygdala
Kluver – Monkeys were lesioned (moved the main areas of limbic system) = Absence of
motor, vocal and emotional reactions normally associated with a stimulus that would elicit
fear and anger. Lost understanding of social hierarchies and would try to fight more dominant
larger members of the group.
Neural and Hormonal mechanisms in aggression
Serotonin –
• In the pre – frontal cortex
• Calming influence and low levels of serotonin means that they cant control
their impulsive and aggressive behaviours.
• Regulates the pre frontal cortex so low levels of serotonin effect our responses
– become more aggressive easily and can’t control their responses in a normal
way. They can’t anticipate risk.
Evidence – Ferrari – Support the role of serotonin in rats. Were made to fight
each other for 10 days for a specific time a day. On the 11th day their serotonin
levels had reduced to 35% despite the fact that they were not fighting. –
Experience had changed rats brain chemistry.
Neural and Hormonal mechanisms in aggression
Testosterone –
Aggression is more evident in males than females.
Testosterone peaks in young adolescents before reducing with age.
Promotes muscle strength and is responsible for sex drive.
Evidence – Wagner – Castrated mice – correlation support as it shows low levels
of aggression is as a result of lower testosterone.
Neural and Hormonal mechanisms in aggression
MAOA – Mano amine oxidase.
MAOA = Warrior gene
Responsible for the production of Mano amine oxidase. This protein allows the
metabolising of noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine. A dysfunction can
result if the neurotransmitter isn’t broken down.
Adrenaline not broken down = hypersensitivity to fight of flight and we will
overreact to a threat.
Dopamine not broken down = high levels = increase likelihood of rewards
Serotonin – low levels = impulsive
Evidence – Brunner – Male study in a family in Netherlands. 5 males had a
decision in their MAOA gene. Had an XXY chromosome.
Ethological explanation in aggression
Ethological explanation – Understand the innate behaviour of animals and by
studying them in their natural environment. By looking at animal behaviour we
can understand human behaviour.
Aggression is seen as an adaptive function. As it’s innate and seen in all species
than it must be beneficial to the organism. Aggression as a behaviour can help
survival as aggression can protect resources like land and food. Aggression can
establish dominance hierarchies and these are vital to access resources like
females.
Lorenz – aggression in animals is ritualistic – repetitive behaviour that is carried
as an action (autonomic). Helps us ensure organisms are not harmed as this
would impair their ability to reproduce. So ritualist aggression like teeth baring
will deter the opponent.
Evidence – Nisbett – Lab experiment found that white south American males
were more likely to respond aggressively than north American males. This
research demonstrates cultural differences that would be problematic for the
ethological explanation
Ethological explanation in aggression
Innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns –
This theory proposes that aggression can be as a result of an evolved autonomic
biological response in the brain. Animals have an inbuilt neural structure which
when exposed to specific stimuli like facial expressions will cause the release of
an autonomic behavioural response.
Inbuilt biological structure – innate releasing mechanism. The consequential
aggressive behavioural sequence is called the fixed action pattern.
Ethological explanation in aggression
Evolution –
Examines how behaviour that was adaptive to our ancestors has been passed down through genetic
transmission from one generation to the next. The time frame for adaption and change is known as
the environment of evolution adaptiveness.
Aggression in this time would help an individual survive, secure resources like food territory and
women. These adaptive behaviours enabled our ancestors to survive and pass on to our offspring.
Natural selection – certain behaviours are passed on

Human males are more likely to survive if they displayed aggression to protect their mates, this
behaviour would be sexually selected by their potential females. Aggression also allowed our
ancestors to establish hierarchies which will lead to a higher social status in a group.
Males are aggressive to deter other males from stealing their female. Females were a resource that
allowed the transmission of genes to offspring. Sexual jealousy occurred when males couldn’t be sure
of the paternity. The fear that a male would be investing all their resources in a child that isn’t theirs is
called cuckoldry.
Daly – men have male retention strategies to deter the female from cheating
- Aggressive direct guarding – restricting her freedom, eg stopping her from talking to males.
- Intersexual negative inducement – threats of violence to the female if they were interested in other
males.
Ethological explanation in aggression
Evolution –
Examines how behaviour that was adaptive to our ancestors has been passed down through genetic
transmission from one generation to the next. The time frame for adaption and change is known as
the environment of evolution adaptiveness.
Aggression in this time would help an individual survive, secure resources like food territory and
women. These adaptive behaviours enabled our ancestors to survive and pass on to our offspring.
Natural selection – certain behaviours are passed on

Human males are more likely to survive if they displayed aggression to protect their mates, this
behaviour would be sexually selected by their potential females. Aggression also allowed our
ancestors to establish hierarchies which will lead to a higher social status in a group.
Males are aggressive to deter other males from stealing their female. Females were a resource that
allowed the transmission of genes to offspring. Sexual jealousy occurred when males couldn’t be sure
of the paternity. The fear that a male would be investing all their resources in a child that isn’t theirs is
called cuckoldry.
Daly – men have male retention strategies to deter the female from cheating
- Aggressive direct guarding – restricting her freedom, eg stopping her from talking to males.
- Intersexual negative inducement – threats of violence to the female if they were interested in other
males.
Social psychological explanations – frustration aggression hypothesis.
Dollard – Frustration always leads to aggression
Psychological drive similar to our biological drive of hunger or thirst which when
satisfied results in drive reduction.
Freud believed the only way to reduce aggression is to engage directly in activity to
reduce it – catharsis (unpleasant feelings that need to be released)
Defence mechanisms -
Denial, displacement, projection, repression, regression and suppression.
Dollard said aggression is our cathartic release.
If a individual is prevented from achieving their goal – aggression
Aggression may not always be direct at the source of aggression – maybe abstract like
money

Psychodynamic theory says we have ego defence mechanisms to protect ourselves –

- Sublimation – using aggression in acceptable activities like sports
- Displacement – directing our aggression outwards onto someone or something else.
Social psychological explanations – frustration aggression hypothesis.
Berkowitz – Believed frustration only readied someone to be aggressive and
that certain cues and environmental triggers were needed.
2 factors that effected the likelihood of aggression occurring
- Proximity of the goal – if your close to the goal and you don’t achieve it you
will be upset,
- Whether aggression will remove the barrier causing the goal.
Social psychological explanations – frustration aggression hypothesis.
Part 6 — Social Psychology Explanations of Aggression: Social Learning Theory (SLT):
•Bandura suggested that learning is a social process, and occurs through the observation and
imitation of specific behaviours displayed by identified role models. Learning can occur both
directly, through classical and operant conditioning, and also indirectly, through vicarious
reinforcement.
•Reinforcement increases the likelihood that an observed behaviour, such as aggressive acts, will
be repeated whilst punishment decreases this likelihood.
•Vicarious reinforcement occurs when we see a role model being rewarded for displaying certain
types of behaviour. The observer is then likely to imitate this modelled behaviour as they are
motivated in achieving the same reward. Self-efficacy can be used to assess the likelihood that
carrying out this behaviour will result in this reward/desire consequence. An example may be a
parent rewarding their son for acting protectively over their toys.
•Role models are likely to have desirable characteristics (e.g. wealth or popularity), be the same
sex as the observer and have high social status. Children choose role models through the
process of identification.
•There are 4 mediational (cognitive) processes which facilitate this learning, and mediate
between stimulus and response. They are attention, retention, motor reproduction and
motivation. Thus, this also demonstrates that the learning and reproduction of behaviour does
not need to occur at the same time.
•
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment
Social psychological explanations – Deinviduation
Deinviduation – Le Bon (1895) suggested that de-individuation is characteristic of crowd or ‘group’ behaviour,
where we feel no personal responsibility for our actions (diminished) because this responsibility
is shared among the group. Likewise, we do not fear retaliation for such actions because we are
just one anonymous face in a large crowd. This prevents our behaviour from being restricted by
social norms.
Zimbardo suggested that when we enter a group setting or crowd, our behaviour becomes anti-
normative and disinhibited, as opposed to restrained by social norms. This means that laws and
social norms no longer apply to our behaviour, as we cannot be judged by others through being
anonymous, nor will we face up to the consequences of our behaviour,.

A03 –
Institutionalised settings
2 main reasons for high levels of aggression in prisons – situational and dispositional factors.

Dispositional explanation – Importation model by Irwin and Cressey

Suggest prisoners import their aggressive tendencies into prisons with them and that’s why violence is very high. These
aggressive characteristics may come from sources like genetics, and or learned history like their background. Therefore, the
aggression that is evident in a prison is no different to how they act at home.
3 prison sub cultures than influence in mates –
- Criminal sub culture – code of honour – not telling on prisoners if they have made a mistake. – promotes honour trust
and loyalty.
- Convict subculture – strong power hierarchy. The group that is more likely to be aggressive is the group that tries to
exercise their power over the group.
- Conventional sub cultures – new to prisons. Will try to keep clear of the other two sub cultures and have more in
common with the prison guards,

- Evidence – Adams = American black inmates were more likely to become aggressive as they came from poorer
backgrounds with high crimes and so imported their cultural norms into the prison.
- Contradicting evidence from DELisi – 813 male inmates – no correlation between violence in prisons and previous gang
members.
Institutionalised settings
Situational factors –
3 factor that come from the environment =
Organisational – influence of rules and regulations they must stick to while serving their sentence.
Physical – cramped conditions, threatening environment and lack of comfort = aggression
Staff characteristics – clash of personalities or an unwilling prisoner

Deprivation model- loss of key needs is the root of behaviour

Skye's – said deprivation causes aggression and that there is 5 types that influence behaviour
1 – Deprivation of liberty – can’t go and do what they please – more likely to be aggressive
2- Deprivation of autonomy – no independence – expected to conform and have no control over their living. This can make
the feel helpless and more aggressive
3- Deprivation of goods and services – access to goods is restricted – new issues is access to mobile phones. A lack of access
to phones can cause anger and resentment which leads to violence.
4- Deprivation of heterosexual relationships – no access to companionship which can lead to aggression. The ability and
need to from relationships and experience emotional intimacy is important.
5- Deprivation of security – don’t feel safe and fear for their safety. The fear can lead to defensiveness which can make
overreaction to incidents more likely.

Evidence – McCorkie – 371 state prisons in USA – little evidence to support link between violence and overcrowding. Stress
is experiences by most prisoner but not all of them react aggressively – flawed assumption
 Gaes – Overcrowding doesn’t just cause ill health but can also result in aggression and violence.
 Media
Desensitisation – psychological and physiological habituation
When we observe violent acts the sympathetic nervous system is activated. Our heart rate increases, blood pressure rises
and we sweat. But when we are repeatedly exposed to these we become habituated, we experience less physiological
arousal and less anxiety.
In a similar way repeated exposure to aggression promotes the belief that its an acceptable way for dealing with conflict =,
we feel less empathy for victims and injuries are dismissed.

Evidence from Earls – P’s watching a rape scene from a movie. Control group watched a non aggressive scene
Males who watched the violent lip were more accepting of rape myths and sexual aggression than those who watched the
non violent film.
Findings were not found in females.

Disinhibition – Social codes and moral rules are behaviour that is considered acceptable in a group or society. Most societies
hold the view that aggression is anti social and harmful. These social and psychological belief inhibit the use of violence in
conflict solutions.
These restraints are loosened and weakened through exposure to violent media – people become disinhibited
In violent media aggression appears normative and frequently sanctioned if justified and is often rewarded and
consequences are minimised.
New social norms are created

Evidence – Berkowitz – P’s who watched an aggressive film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more fake electric shocks
to confederates. Suggesting that media may disinhibit aggressive behaviour especially if its justified. The theory suggests if
the violence is justified its acceptable.
 Cognitive priming
Activation of existing thoughts and feelings –schemas
CP explains why children observe one kind of aggression but commit another kind of aggression after.
The theory predicts that after viewing violent media the viewer is primed to act aggressively because certain scripts are
activated.
The script is triggered when certain cues are presented in a situation that may be judged as being aggressive.

Evidence – Fisher – investigated song lyrics

Men that listen to aggressively derogatory songs about women recall more negative comments about women than those
who listened to non derogatory lyrics. + behaved more aggressively towards female confederates.