Advanced Property Modeling Course

Course Content

Day 1 Day 2
Introduction Create Training images

Pixel-based modeling Make MP Facies Patterns

Object-based modeling Make Conditioning & Scaling data

Combined Modeling methods MPFS on 3D data: Applied

MPFS on 2D data: Theory Petrophysical modeling

Modeling methods
Overview
Variogram based algorithms
Kriging overview
Variogram overview
Pixel-based Indicator methods - using variograms
Indicator Kriging (IK)
Sequential Indicator Simulation (SIS)
Truncated Gaussian Simulation (TGS)
Object-based Indicator methods - using insertion points
Fluvial Channels
Adaptive channels
General Body
Other tools
Hierarchical modeling / Background property / Assign property
Data Analysis
Property Calculator / Filter
Multipoint statistics method - using training images
SNESIM
Petrel MP Facies Simulation
Kriging
Concept
Kriging is an Estimation Technique based on fundamental statistical
properties of the data (Mean and Variance).
Assumption of data set:
Stationarity
– Mean does not change laterally
– No trends
Inputs:
Data set
– Normally well data
Variogram and CDF curve
Use and Limitations:
Trend search and visualization of trends
Smooth and locally accurate results
Does not handle extreme values very well
Kriging
Weighted linear estimates
Kriging uses weighted linear estimates; i.e. combining known values
to estimate an unknown value Z at a location Xo
Influence of variogram
Range on weights

X0 ? Range

1 2 3 4 5 Lag distance
n
z ( x0 )   i z ( xi )
Direction of major continuity i
Data with known values, Z(Xi) Weighting factor decided by Variogram:
• How close to location?
Value to be estimated, Z(X0)
• Preferred direction (anisotropy)
Z (Xo) is not known, but we can still calculate the error variance because we know
the statistic parameters; mean value, variance value and the variogram model
Kriging
From a Variogram Model to Final Estimation
A linear equation system must be solved to find the value at xo.
A matrix with Variance between neighbour data and Variance from neighbour data to
estimated point is set up with Kriging weights
The result of solving the linear equation system: Weights are found and multiplied
with the known values, giving the final estimated value n
Linear Equation System to be solved: z ( x 0 )   i z ( x i )
 ( x11 )  ( x12 ) ...  ( x1n ) 1   1   ( x10 )  i
 ( x )  ( x ) ...  ( x2 n ) 1  2   ( x20 )  Unknown weights
 21 22 X2
 ... ... ... ... ... *  ...    ...  (0.22)
     
 ( xn1 )  ( xn 2 ) ...  ( xnn ) 1  n   ( xn 0 ) 60
30
 1 1 1 1 0      1  X0 (?)
42
40
X1 20
(0.25)
55
Calculated weights New value X3
(0.30)

Z(xo) = 0.185 * 0.25 + 0.291 * 0.22 + 0.524 * 0.30 = 0.267

Variogram
Parameters
Points - Sample variogram
Variance: A measure of how different Line - Model variogram
members of a collection are from eachother. Sill

Lag distance: Separation distance between

points.
Sill: Variance at the point where the summary Nugget Range
plot flattens out to random similarity. Separation
1 2 3 4 5 distance (lag)
Range: Correlation distance; distance
beyond which data points no longer exhibit The Variogram can be calculated in 3
any statistical similarity. directions:

Nugget: Degree of dissimilarity at zero • Horizontal Major

distance. • Horizontal Minor
2 • Vertical
    
Nh
1
 h   (i  h ) i
2Nh i 1
Indicator Variograms
Petrel
Variogram: Variograms should be modeled for each facies as facies vary in
correlation length with distance. How bundled these stochastically modeled pixel
facies types appear is dependant on Variogram range and variance (nugget).

Facies type

Variogram results – to be
used in Modeling

Search cone setup – to generate

the sample variogram
Kriging
Influence of the Variogram model parameters
Azimuth Nugget Variogram Range

Anisotropic High (0.99) Range: small

Bad

Anisotropic Range: large

Low (0.1)

Good
Modeling Methods
Pixel-based using Variograms

Indicator Kriging

Sequential Indicator Simulation

Truncated Gaussian Simulation

Indicator Kriging (IK)
Theory
Variogram Influence
Cell (Xi) is defined. X1
A PDF (probability distribution function) is
derived from IK (Indicator Kriging) X2
Upscaled and cells are used for facies Xi
probability calculation. X3
A kriged value at Xi (Shale) is estimated from
the PDF based on a weighted linear
Original probability of Sand/Shale given
combination of neighbour points. by Upscaled well logs:

Local indicator Psand= 0.3 & Pshale= 0.7

p
PDF curve
1.0 Cell at location (Xi) to be Kriged
Upscaled cell (Shale)

0.3 Upscaled cell (Sand)

Original probability at (Xi)

Indicator Kriging (IK)
Result

Result is VERY much dependant on the

Variogram ranges, as they control the
distributed proportions.
With small variogram range, a ‘Volume-
support’ effect may occur.
Sequential Indicator Simulation (SIS)
Overview

SIS is a stochastic (pixel based) modeling algorithm, using upscaled cells as basis
for fraction of facies types to be modeled. The variogram constrains the
distribution and connectedness of each facies type. It is widely used to model
facies with unclear or undefined Shapes, or when few input data are available.

Inputs:
– Facies proportion, facies probability and 1D, 2D, 3D Trends
– Different variogram for different facies
Underlying methods:
– Simple Kriging (Global mean - stable)
– Ordinary Kriging (Re-estimates mean – more data)
Output:
– Pixel based property honoring input data
– Stochastic; multiple realizations can be run for Uncertainty
Sequential Indicator Simulation (SIS)
Theory

Cell (X3) is chosen along a random path X0

(decided by Seed number).
X3
A PDF (probability distribution function) is X1
derived from IK (Indicator Kriging)
Upscaled and simulated cells are used for
X2
facies probability calculation.
A simulated value (Shale) is drawn from the
Original probability of Sand/Shale given
PDF curve using random MC sampling (0-1) by Upscaled well logs:

Local indicator Psand= 0.3 & Pshale= 0.7

p
PDF curve
1.0 Cell at location (X0) to be simulated

0.45 Upscaled cell (Shale)

0.3 Upscaled cell (Sand)

Simulated cell (Shale)
Original probability at (X0) Simulated cell (Sand)
 Sequential Indicator Simulation (SIS)
Result
SIS is a kriging-based stochastic method
Honor the facies distribution and upscaled cells.
There is no facies relationship
The amount of ‘bundling’ of a facies depends mainly on the Variogram and trend
input data.

Small Range Large Range Trend defined; Trend defined;

Omni-directional Directional not used used
Truncated Gaussian Simulation
Algorithms
Overview of method:
A stochastic method which is able to generate large-scale geometries through
construction of a close facies relationships.
TGS w/trends
Methods in Petrel:
’Truncated Gaussian with trends’
’Truncated Gaussian Simulation’
Advantages: TGS
Honors facies transitions / relationships
Honors well data and global fractions
Stochastic; providing multiple realizations
Truncated Gaussian Simulation
Theory
Truncated Gaussian Simulation generates realizations of a normalized Gaussian
random field, and truncate the data using multiple thresholds (t)
Process: t3

1
C1
Initial Facies proportions are known from well

0 Proportions
C2
data.
t2
A Gaussian residual field (GRF) using one
Variogram is set for multiple facies t 1 C3
The GRF is simulated and subsequently truncated C4
using the thresholds (t1-3) -3 Distribution 3
Results:
The Facies associations (red to purple) are
controlled by the ordering of the Gaussian classes
(C1-4). Red can only be next to yellow and not
purple etc.
Same anisotropy (from one GRF) for all facies
Truncated Gaussian with trends
Theory

0.4
0.6
0.81.0
1.21.4
+
1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6

Deterministic trend based on well Residual field based on variogram

data and interpretation (to keep the and well data (for interfingering effect)
facies ordering and boundaries)

The final model by re-truncating the combined field

Truncated Gaussian with trends
Result

Low Range High Range Low Range High Range

‘connected’ ‘connected and ‘high frequency’ ‘low frequency’

interfingering noisy’ interfingering interfingering interfingering
Pixel-based methods
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages:
Generally robust mathematically
Easy to condition to both hard and soft data as they build
one pixel at a time
Fast
Universal w.r.t geological / depositional environment
Limitations:
Does not look geologically real; cannot create complex
geometric shapes
No pattern control
No control on connectivity (except post-smoothing)
Modeling Methods
Object-based using Insertion points

Fluvial Channel

Adaptive Channels

General Body
Object Facies Modeling
General Object Simulation Process
Objects are inserted randomly using a point insertion based on criteria like
fractions and rules

Reference point
Genetic information Facies body
Body shape, size,
orient., sinuosity … Evaluate
Keep or reject

Define probability field with trends

Simulation area
Object Facies Modeling
General Object Body Modeling
General shape/body option to model simple isolated facies
bodies that do not adhere to complex rules like e.g. channels do.
Multiple objects can be simulated at a time
Works top-down in the list

3D objects

2D objects
Fluvial Channel Modeling
Overview
No Drift Drift
Channel, levee association
Vertical, lateral and Volume trends
Flow-lines and source points
Drift

Flow Lines Source points Trends

Adaptive Channel Modeling
Overview
Adaptive channel modeling is object-based and facilitates full well control through use of
the SGS algorithm

Application and conditioning

Creates channel-levee models
Can be conditioned to 1D, 2D and Volume trends
Advantages:
Superior to traditional object modeling techniques in
situations with large numbers of well constraints
Provides controlable channel connectivity
Stochastic, providing multiple realizations
Object-based methods
Advantages and Limitations

Advantages:
Easy to condition insertion point to both hard and soft data
Fast and faithful to geometry of object
Looks geologically real
Simple bodies are ideal for making MPS training images
Limitations:
No direct control on shape outside insertion points
Hard to condition to local data of different support volumes
Limited amount of object types (hardcoded and decided by
the software vendor)
Modeling Methods
Other tools

Hierarchical Modeling

Data Analysis

Property Calculator
Hierarchical Facies Modeling
Conditioning – based on correlation
Second level facies Models can be constrained by a first level facies models, using
two independent levels of facies models.
An example: A large scale facies model may define regional channel belts and a
smaller scale facies model would model local lithological variations within each large
scale facies type.

Field analog Large scale model Small scale model

Background Property
Modeling – no conditioning
Data Analysis
Vertical Proportion
Proportion : Applied as vertical probability curves based on the original fraction of
facies in each K-layer. The probability of using the given fractions is given by a curve
that can be edited manually.

Channel and levee facies

Fit probability curve
To fraction histogram
are abundant in the
shallower portion of the
interval, while Lobe
facies is concentrated in
the lower portion of the
zone

Original values (fixed) Probability values (editable)

Data Analysis
3D Probability
Probability : Shows the relationship between the original upscaled facies and the
secondary attribute which must exist in the cells to be populated.
Secondary property (here:Acoustic impedance)
Facies type locked to
avoid editing

At low Acoustic impedance,

generating Channel, levee
and Lobe facies are almost
Edited point equally probable. As the
Anomalous point impedance values increase,
shale is more and more the
probable facies
Property Calculator
Calculator
Property Calculator can be used to create new facies properties or edit and merge
multiple existing properties. Visual Filters can be applied.
Other tools
Advantages and Limitations

Advantages:
Easy to control and edit original input data
All data stored in Data analysis (audit trail) or
Calculator
Limitations:
Hard to reproduce
Relying on manual edits
Not always possible to update in ’Workflow editor’
Hierarchical/background only related to one existing
facies type – cannot extend into next facies
Complex Facies Modeling
Next step
Multipoint Statistics (MPS) simulation methods attempt to incorporate data
conditioning from pixel-based methods with realistic shape information, and from
Object based (boolean methods).
Main differences:
- No Variogram is required
- Using Training images

History: Single Normal Equation Simulation – SNESIM

Developed at Stanford University
Initial SNESIM implementation by Sebastien Strebelle, 2000
Numerous extensions by other Stanford students

.
Complex Facies Modeling
SNESIM
MPS simulation by SNESIM used Upscaled wells (hard data), a training image and
optional soft data (trends, regions etc.)
.
Upscaled Well Training Images Trends
Data +
+

Azimuth
+
Scaling Regions
Simulation Results +
Multipoint Facies Modeling
Conditional Probabilities – Moving from 2 to n-points

2-point Geostatistics
X2
– Linear estimate based on 2-point correlation
from a Variogram
?
X1
X3
X4

Multipoint Geostatistics X2
– Exact solution based on n and n+1 correlation
?
X1
using a Training image
X3
X4