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1. ROCK PROPERTIES
3. MULTIPHASE FLOW
3.1 Relative Permeability
3.2 Capillary Forces Formation Damage
3.3 Multiphase Flow Laws
3.4 Immiscible Displacement
3.4.1 Fractional Flow
3.4.2 Segregated Flow
4. RESERVOIR EVALUATION
5. RESERVOIR SIMULATION
6. ENHANCED RECOVERY TECHNIQUES
Common Formation Damage Mechanisms
Formation Damage
Dissolution
Geomechanics Induced
(Bennion, 2002)
Polymer Adsorption Effects on Low and High Perm Rocks
(Bennion, 2002)
If flow rate is too high, fines are mobilized.
These fines plug pores, reducing permeability.
Depending on water chemistry, clay swelling may occur reduction in pore volume.
(Bennion, 2002)
Comparison of Formation Damage Effects in Open-Hole
vs. Cased Hole Completions
(Bennion, 2002)
References
Bennion, D.B., “An Overview of Formation Damage Mechanisms Causing a Reduction
in the Productivity and Injectivity of Oil and Gas Producing Formations”, Journal of
Canadian Petroleum Technology, Vol. 41, No. 11, November 2002, pp. 29-36.
(TN860 .J862)
Ding, Y., Longeron, D., Renard, G. and Audibert, A., “Modeling Near-Wellbore Damage
and Natural Cleanup of Water-Based Mud”, Journal of Petroleum Technology,
November 2002, pp.37-38. (Nat. Sci. TN860 .J86)
COURSE OUTLINE
1. ROCK PROPERTIES
3. MULTIPHASE FLOW
3.1 Relative Permeability
3.2 Capillary Forces
3.3 Multiphase Flow Laws
3.4 Immiscible Displacement
3.4.1 Fractional Flow
3.4.2 Segregated Flow
4. RESERVOIR EVALUATION
5. RESERVOIR SIMULATION
6. ENHANCED RECOVERY TECHNIQUES
VISCOUS FINGERING
The mechanics of displacing one fluid with another are relatively simple
if the displaced fluid (oil) has a tendency to flow faster than the
displacing fluid (water).
Under these circumstances there is no tendency for the displaced fluid
to be overtaken by the displacing fluid and the fluid-fluid (oil-water)
interface is stable.
If the displacing fluid has a tendency to move faster than the displaced
fluid, the fluid-fluid interface is unstable. Tongues of displacing fluid
propagate at the interface. This process is called viscous fingering.
MOBILITY
grad p w w z
kw
Recall: qw
mw
grad p o o z
ko
qo
mo
Mobility controls the relative ease with which fluids can flow through a
porous medium.
MOBILITY RATIO
If the mobility ratio is less than or equal to one, oil can flow at a rate
greater than or equal to that of water and is pushed ahead by the
water bank in a piston-like fashion.
The moveable oil volume (MOV) is given by:
MOV = (1 - Soi - Swi)·PV
where PV is the pore volume. For a waterflood under ideal
displacement conditions, the volume of oil recovered is exactly equal
to the volume of water injected. Once water breaks through, no more
oil will be produced.
1 - Soi
Swi
NON-IDEAL DISPLACEMENT (1)
Some distance ahead of the water front, oil alone flows at the end-point
mobility o’ = ko’/mo.
At some point nearer the water front there is a sharp change in water
saturation called the shock front.
Behind the shock front there is a transition zone where both water and oil
flow.
At the end of the transition zone, water alone is flowing at the end-point
mobility w’ = kw’/mw.
When the shock front reaches the production well there is a sharp
increase in watercut. This event is called breakthrough.
NON-IDEAL DISPLACEMENT (2)
1 - Soi
t1
t2
Swi water
transition zone oil zone
zone
The diagram shows two saturation profiles with the shock front to the
right. Before breakthrough, there is a water, transition and an oil zone. At
breakthrough, the shaded area represents moveable oil that remains
between the injector and producer.
AREAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY
When oil is produced from patterns of injectors and producers, the flow is
such that only part of the area is swept at breakthrough.
The expansion of the waterbank is initially radial from the injector but
eventually is focused at the producer.
The pattern is illustrated for a direct line drive at a mobility ratio of unity.
At breakthough, a considerable area of the reservoir is unswept.
MOBILITY RATIO AND SWEEP EFFICIENCY
Mobility ratio (M) has a strong influence on areal sweep efficiency (ASE)
at breakthrough. For five-spot patterns, areal sweep efficiency at
breakthrough depends on the mobility ratio.
High M
VERTICAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY
Unswept
Unswept
Unswept
WATERFLOOD
Oil recovery can be determined at any time in the life of a waterflood if four
factors are known:
If the oil initially in place in the floodable pore volume at start of water
injection (OIIP or N) is determined, the waterflood recovery Np is given
by:
Np = N x EA x EV x ED
For example, for EA=0.6, EV=0.6 and ED=0.6 the recovery factor is
only 0.216 or less than 22% of the floodable pore volume. If
EA=EV=ED=0.5 then the recovery factor falls to 0.125.