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Chapter 2
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Neurons: The Messengers
About 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in
the human brain
Neurons have many of the same features
as other cells
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
What makes neurons unique is their shape
and function
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Structure of Neurons
Dendrites
Carry information to the cell
body from other neurons
Cell Body (Soma)
Contains nucleus
Axon
Carries information to the
next cell
Myelin Sheath
Insulates the axon and
speeds up the neural
impulse
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Types of Neurons
Sensory neurons
Carry information from sensory systems to the brain
Also referred to as afferent
Motor neurons
Carry information from the brain to muscles and
glands
Also referred to as efferent
Interneurons
Carry information between other neurons
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Glial Cells
Cells that insulate and support neurons
Create the myelin sheath
Remove waste products
Provide nourishment
Prevent harmful substances from entering
the brain
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Neural Impulse
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Neural Impulse
Ions
Charged molecules
Resting Potential
When more negative
ions are inside the
neuron than outside
Charge is
approximately -70mV
Neuron is not
transmitting
information
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Neural Impulse
Polarization
When the electrical charge of a cell moves
away from zero
Depolarization
When the electrical charge of a cell moves
toward zero
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Neural Impulse
Action Potential
Sudden, massive
change in charge in
the neuron
Occurs when
depolarization reaches
the threshold of
excitation
Ions flow across cell
membrane
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Neural Impulse
Graded Potentials
Subthreshold depolarization
Many subthreshold depolarizations are added
together to produce an action potential (a
process known as summation)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Neural Impulse
All-or-None Law
A neuron either fires or it does not
When it does fire, it will always produce an
impulse of the same strength
Intensity of a stimulus is coded by the
frequency of action potentials
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Neural Impulse
Absolute refractory period
Period immediately after an
action potential when
another action potential
cannot occur
Relative refractory period
Period following absolute
refractory period when a
neuron will only respond to
a stronger than normal
impulse
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Synapse
Synaptic space (synaptic cleft)
Tiny gap between neurons
Terminal button
Enlarged area at the end of an axon
The synapse
Composed of the terminal button of one
neuron, the synaptic space, and the dendrites
or cell body of the receiving neuron
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Transmission Between Neurons
Synaptic vesicles
Sacs in terminal button
that release chemicals
into synaptic space
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals released by
synaptic vesicles
Receptor sites
Location on receptor
neuron for specific
neurotransmitter
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Some Well-Known
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Released at the neuromuscular junction
Plays an important role in arousal and attention
Loss of ACh producing cells is linked to Alzheimer’s
Disease
Dopamine
Affects neurons associated with voluntary movement
Plays a role in learning, memory, and emotions
Loss of dopamine-producing cells causes symptoms
of Parkinson’s Disease
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Some Well-Known
Neurotransmitters
Serotonin
Found throughout the brain
Appears to sets an “emotional tone”
Low serotonin levels are implicated in
depression
Endorphins
Reduce pain by inhibiting or “turning down”
neurons that transmit pain information
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Psychopharmacology
Most psychoactive drugs (and toxins) work
by blocking or enhancing synaptic
transmission
Botulism
Blocks release of ACh at the neuromuscular
junction, causing paralysis
“Botox” is botulism toxin used to prevent facial
muscles from making wrinkles
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Psychopharmacology
Curare
Can stun or kill prey quickly
Blocks ACh receptors causing paralysis
Antipsychotic medications
Block dopamine receptors
Reduces schizophrenic hallucinations
Caffeine
Increases the release of excitatory neurotransmitters
by blocking the inhibitory neurotransmitter adenosine
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Psychopharmacology
Cocaine
Prevents reabsorption of dopamine
Leads to heightened arousal of entire nervous
system
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Neural Plasticity
The brain can be changed, both
structurally and chemically, by experience
Rat studies show that an “enriched”
environment leads to larger neurons with
more connections
Has also been shown in humans
Recent research has uncovered evidence
of neurogenesis, or the production of new
brain cells, in human brains
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Nervous System Organization
Central nervous
system (CNS)
Consists of the brain
and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous
system
Connects the CNS to
the rest of the body
Somatic nervous
system
Autonomic nervous
system
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Central Nervous System
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Brain – The Central Core
Medulla
Controls breathing,
heart rate, and blood
pressure
Pons
Maintains the sleep-
wake cycle
Cerebellum
Coordinates body’s
movements
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Brain – The Central Core
Thalamus
Relays information from
sensory receptors to the
brain
Hypothalamus
Influences motivated
behavior
Regulates hunger, thirst,
body temperature, and
sexual drive.
Directly involved in
emotional behavior
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Brain – The Central Core
Reticular formation
Network of neurons found throughout the
brain
Serves to alert and arouse higher brain in
response to incoming information
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Brain – The Limbic System
Ring of structures located
between the central core
and the cerebral
hemispheres
Important to learning and
emotional behavior
Hippocampus essential in
formation of new memories
Amygdala, together with
the hippocampus, is
important for regulating
emotions
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Cerebral Cortex
Occipital lobe
Receives and processes
visual information
Temporal lobe
Complex visual tasks such
as face recognition
Receives and processed
auditory information
Involved in balance, some
emotions and motivations
Some language processing
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Cerebral Cortex
Parietal lobe
Receives sensory
information from body
Involved in spatial abilities
Frontal lobe
Coordinated information
from other lobes
Controls voluntary
movement, attention,
setting goals, and
expression of appropriate
emotions
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Hemispheric Specialization
Corpus Callosum
Fibers that connect the
two hemispheres
Allow close
communication
between left and right
hemishphere
Each hemisphere
appears to specialize
in certain functions
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Split-Brain Research
Much information about functions of each
hemisphere has come from studying split-
brain patients
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Tools for Studying the
Nervous System
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Microelectrode Techniques
Very small electrodes inserted into
individual neurons
Used to study activity of a single neuron
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Macroelectrode Techniques
Used to get a picture of overall activity in
the brain
An example is an EEG, which uses
electrodes placed on a person’s scalp to
measure brain activity
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Structural Imaging
Computerized Axial Tomography (CT-
scan)
Uses X-rays to create a 3-dimensional image
of the brain
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Uses a magnetic field and radio waves to
produce images
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Functional Imaging
EEG imaging
electrical activity on the scalp from millions of
neurons is used to produce a continuous
picture of activity in the brain
Magentoencephalography (MEG) and
Magnetic source imaging (MSI)
Can localize activity more precisely than EEG
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Functional Imaging
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and
Single Photon Emission Computed
Tomography (SPECT)
Use radioactive glucose to determine location
of greatest brain activity
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(fMRI)
Shows function and structure by measuring
movement of blood molecules within the brain
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Spinal Cord
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Spinal Cord
Complex cable of nerves that connects
brain to rest of the body
Carries motor impulses from the brain to
internal organs and muscles
Carries sensory information from
extremities and internal organs to the brain
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord controls some protective
reflex movements without any input from
the brain
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Peripheral Nervous System
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Somatic Nervous System
Consists of neurons that communicate
between the body and the brain
Afferent neurons
Neurons that carry messages from sense
organs to spinal cord
Efferent neurons
Neurons that carry messages from the spinal
cord or brain to muscles and glands
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic division
Most active when you
are angry, afraid, or
aroused
Fight-or-flight
response
Increases heart rate
and breathing
Stops digestion
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Autonomic Nervous System
Parasympathetic
division
Calms body
Produces effects
opposite to those of
the sympathetic
division
Reduces heart rate
and breathing
Restores digestion
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Endocrine System
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Endocrine System
Helps coordinate and integrate complex
psychological reactions
Endocrine glands secrete hormones into
the bloodstream
Hormones serve to organize the nervous
system and body
Hormones also activate behavior, such as
sexual behavior
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Endocrine System
Thyroid gland
Secretes hormones
(primarily thyroxin) that
control metabolism
Parathyroid glands
Control levels of
calcium and
phosphate which in
turn controls levels of
excitability
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Endocrine System
Pineal gland
Secretes melatonin
which regulates the
sleep-wake cycle
Pancreas
Regulates blood-sugar
levels
Secretes insulin and
glucagon
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Endocrine System
Pituitary gland
Referred to as the
“master gland”
because it regulates
many other glands
Gonads
Ovaries and testes
secrete estrogens and
androgens
Adrenal glands
Secretes hormones in
reaction to stressCharles
Psychology: An Introduction
A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Genes, Evolution, and
Behavior
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Genetics
Heredity - transmission of trait from one
generation to next
Chromosomes
Pairs of thread like bodies that contain genes
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Organic molecule arranged in a double-helix
Contains the “code of life”
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Behavior Genetics
Study of behavior from a genetic
perspective
Animal behavior genetic studies include:
Strain studies
Selection studies
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Human Behavior Genetics
Family studies
Assume that close family members share
more of a trait than non-relatives
Used to assess the heritability of
psychological disorders or traits
Twin studies
Used to determine how heritable a trait or
disorder may be
Identical twins would have highest heritability
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Human Behavior Genetics
Adoption studies
Used to assess the influence of environment
Molecular genetics
Direct study of the genetic code
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Evolutionary Psychology
Natural selection
“Survival of the fittest”
Evolutionary psychology looks at the
adaptive or survival value of behaviors
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Social Implications
Study of biological origins of behavior
could lead to genocide and eugenics
aimed at eliminating certain types of
people
Could also be used to create new
categories of people, such as people bred
to be good soldiers or manual laborers
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall