ANATOMY,

PHYSIOLOGY,
& DISEASE
FOUNDATIONS FOR
THE HEALTH PROFESSIONS

DEBORAH ROIGER
NIA BULLOCK

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Chapter 8

The Endocrine System

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Learning Outcomes 1

8.1 Use medical terminology related to the

endocrine system.
8.2 Compare and contrast the endocrine and
nervous systems in terms of type, specificity,
speed, and duration of communication.
8.3 Define gland, hormone, and target tissue.
8.4 List the major hormones, along with their
target tissues and functions, of each of the
endocrine system glands.
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Learning Outcomes 2

8.5 Locate and identify endocrine system glands.

8.6 Describe the chemical makeup of hormones,
using estrogen, insulin, and epinephrine as
examples.
8.7 Compare the location of receptors for protein
hormones with that of receptors for steroid
hormones.
8.8 Differentiate autocrine, paracrine, endocrine,
and pheromone chemical signals in terms of the
proximity of the target tissue.
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Learning Outcomes 3

8.9 Explain the regulation of hormone

secretion and its distribution.
8.10 Explain how the number of receptors
can be changed.
8.11 Explain how hormones are eliminated
from the body.
8.12 Explain the function of hormones by
showing how they interact to maintain
homeostasis.
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Learning Outcomes 4

8.13 Explain the effects of aging on the

endocrine system.
8.14 Describe common diagnostic tests
used to diagnose endocrine system
disorders.
8.15 Describe endocrine system disorders
and relate abnormal function to pathology.

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Overview 1

Word Roots and Combining Forms

• aden/o: gland
• adren/o: adrenal glands
• adrenal/o adrenal glands
• andr/o: male
• cortic/o: cortex
• crin/o: secrete
• dips/o: thirst
• gluc/o: sugar
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Overview 2

Word Roots and Combining Forms

• glyc/o: sugar
• gonad/o: sex glands
• hormon/o: hormone
• pancreat/o: pancreas
• ster/o: steroid
• thyr/o: thyroid gland

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Overview 3

The endocrine system and nervous system

are used for communication to maintain
homeostasis.
Both of these systems use chemicals as
messengers.
Communication through the endocrine
system is much slower to start, is less
specific as to its target, and takes longer to
end than communication by the nervous
system.
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Jump to long description

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Communication of the Nervous and
Endocrine Systems

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 1

A gland may be a separate structure all on

its own, or it may be groups of cells within
an organ that function together to produce
hormones.
Hormones are chemicals that travel to their
target tissue and tell them to do something.
A target tissue has receptors for a hormone
based on shape.

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Endocrine System Glands

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 2

Glands
• Pineal gland function is not completely known.
• Regulates biological rhythms

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 3

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

• The pituitary gland has two parts:
• Anterior pituitary
• Posterior pituitary
• The hypothalamus
• Plays a major role as a gateway for the brain to
control the endocrine system
• The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary
gland’s two parts by a stalk called the
infundibulum.
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Hypothalamus

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Location of the Hypothalamus and
Pituitary Gland

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Hypothalamus—Pituitary Relationship

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 4

Thyroid Gland
• Located below the larynx
• Two lobes connected by anterior isthmus
• Thyroid hormone (T4 and T3)
• Iodine is necessary for production in the thyroid.
• Functions:
• Increases metabolic rate
• Promotes protein synthesis
• Enhances neuron function
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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 5

Thyroid Gland
• Calcitonin
• Another hormone produced by the thyroid gland
• Lowers blood calcium by stimulating calcium
deposition by osteoblasts in bones

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 6

Parathyroid Gland
• Small glands on posterior surface of thyroid gland
• Two glands on each lobe
• Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
• Increases the concentration of blood calcium levels
three ways:
• Promotes calcium removal from bones by
osteoclasts and inhibits calcium deposition by
osteoblasts
• Inhibits excretion of calcium by kidneys
• Promotes calcium absorption into blood by
intestine
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Parathyroid Glands

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 7

Pancreas
• Elongated organ posterior to the stomach
• Exocrine functions:
• Secretes digestive enzymes
• Carried by pancreatic duct into small intestine

• Endocrine function:
• Islets of Langerhans secrete three hormones
• Glucagon: raises blood glucose
• Insulin: lowers blood glucose
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Pancreas

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 8

Adrenal Glands
• 2 adrenal glands, one atop each kidney
• Glands consist of two portions:
• Inner adrenal medulla
• Outer adrenal cortex

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 9

Adrenal Glands
• Adrenal cortex
• The adrenal cortex is the outer layer of the adrenal
gland.
• Produces over 25 different hormones classified in three
major categories:
• Mineralocorticoids
• Glucocorticoids
• Androgens
• Adrenal medulla
• Sympathetic nervous
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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 11

Gonads
• Females: ovaries
• Produce ova and sex hormones estrogen and
progesterone

• Males: testes
• Produce sperm and sex hormone testosterone

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 12

Other Tissues
• Heart = atrial natriuretic hormone
• The digestive system = several hormones

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 13

Hormones
• There are three categories of hormones based
upon chemical composition: steroids, amino
acid derivatives, and proteins.
• The composition of a hormone affects how it
relates to a receptor.

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 14

Steroid Hormones
• Derived from cholesterol
• An example: estrogen
• They can pass through the cell membrane to
reach receptors within the cell.

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 15

Amino Acid Derivatives

• Derived from amino acids (building blocks of
protein)
• An example: epinephrine
• Although some of these hormones may pass
through the cell membrane, epinephrine cannot
– it must bind to a receptor on the outside of the
cell membrane.

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 16

Protein Hormones
• Derived from chains of amino acids
• An example: insulin
• These hormones are too large to pass through
the plasma membrane.

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 17

Target Tissues
• Receptors for hormones can be on the cell
membrane or inside the cell.
• Water soluble hormones bind to receptors on the
outside of the cell.
• Activates second messenger systems
• Lipid soluble hormones (steroids) bind receptors
inside of the cell.

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Location of Receptors for Protein
Hormones

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Location of Receptors for Steroid
Hormones

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 18

Target Tissues
• The location of the target tissue is relevant to
the delivery method of a hormone.
• Autocrine = cell stimulates itself
• Paracrine = nearby cells without entering the blood
• Endocrine = hormone enters the blood
• Pheromone = chemicals ignite a response outside
the body in another individual

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 19

Regulation of Hormone Secretion and

Distribution
• Three modes:
• Neural stimulation of a gland
• Another hormone stimulating a gland
• A substance other than a hormone stimulating a
gland.

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 20

Regulation of Hormone Secretion and

Distribution
• Hormone secretion is regulated by negative
feedback.
• A hormone is secreted when the concentration of a
substance is too low or too high.
• The hormone causes body cells to bring the
substance level back to normal.
• Once normal levels are reached, hormone secretion
and concentration decreases.

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Negative Feedback Inhibition of the Hypothalamus
and Pituitary Gland by the Thyroid Gland

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 21

Regulation of Hormone Secretion and

Distribution
• Thyroid hormone and steroid hormones bind to
plasma proteins in the blood, so not all of the
hormone enters the cell at once – timed release
• Protein hormones do not need to bind to
plasma proteins because they cannot enter a
cell.

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Transport and Actions of Protein and
Steroid Hormones

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 22

Receptor Regulation
• Up-regulation is the increase in the number of
receptors for a given hormone.
• Increases the cell’s sensitivity to a hormone and
therefore increases the effects of the hormone.

• Down-regulation is the decrease in the number

of receptors for a given hormone.
• Decreases the cell’s sensitivity to a hormone and
therefore decreases the effects of the hormone.

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Up-Regulation of Receptors

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Down-Regulation of Receptors

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 23

Hormone Elimination
• Hormones can be eliminated 4 ways
• Excretion – kidneys remove hormone
• Metabolism – enzymes break down the hormone
• Active transport - reuptake
• Conjugation – liver combines the hormone with
water-soluble substance for excretion

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 24

Hormone Elimination
• Half-life is the length of time it takes for one-half
of a substance to be eliminated from the
circulatory system.

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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 25

Functions: Four Scenarios

Scenario 1 – Insulin and Glucagon Secretion
• Hormones such as insulin and glucagon are
used to maintain homeostasis.
• Uses negative feedback
• Insulin is released after a meal to allow glucose to
enter the cells from the blood.
• Glucagon is released many hours later when glucose
levels fall below the normal range to restore normal
levels in the blood.
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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 26

Functions: Four Scenarios

Scenario 2 – The consequences of reduced
melatonin at puberty
Normally the pineal gland reduces melatonin output at
puberty.
• Melatonin inhibits GnRH.
• GnRH stimulates release of FSH and LH.
• FSH stimulates the production of estrogen by the
ovaries producing secondary sex characteristics.
• LH stimulates ovulation.
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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 27

Functions: Four Scenarios

Scenario 3 - Adrenal cortex degeneration:
Addison’s disease
• With low cortisol, the ability to use fat and
protein as fuel is reduced along with the
ability to deal with stress, and inflammation.
• The effects of decreased DHEA are minimal
because the adrenal cortex is not the main
source of testosterone. The majority of the
testosterone comes from the testes.
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Anatomy of the Endocrine System 28

Functions: Four Scenarios

Scenario 4 - Hormonal Regulation of Childbirth
• The endocrine system can use positive feedback
mechanisms.
• The fetal head pushes on the cervix, sending a nerve
impulse to the posterior pituitary.
• Oxytocin is released, causing the muscles of the
uterus to contract.
• Contraction causes further stimulation of the fetal
head on the cervix and response gets progressively
stronger as the cycle repeats.
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Oxytocin’s Effect on Childbirth

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Effects of Aging on the Endocrine
System
In general, the levels of hormones decline
with age.
Even if the levels of some hormones remain
high with age, the sensitivity of the target
tissue often decreases with down-regulation
of receptors.

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Common Diagnostic Tests for
Endocrine System Disorders1

Blood tests are used to determine hormone

levels in the blood so as to detect certain
endocrine conditions.
Computerized Tomography (CT) is used to
evaluate internal structures for evidence of
tumors and other anatomical abnormalities.
Dual-Energy-X-ray Absorptiometry Scan
(DEXA) uses low-dose radiation to measure
bone density in hip and vertebrae.
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Common Diagnostic Tests for
Endocrine System Disorders2

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) or

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is
used to visualize internal soft tissue
structures.
Urinalysis evaluates physical, chemical,
and microscopic changes in the urine.
X-ray is used to evaluate dense structures
in the body, such as bone.

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Endocrine System Disorders 1

Diabetes Mellitus
• Diabetes mellitus is a problem with insulin in
blood glucose regulation. It has two forms: type
1 and type 2.
• Symptoms for both types are excessive thirst
(polydipsia), excessive urine production (polyuria),
and glucose in the urine (glucosuria).
• If uncontrolled, both types may lead to life-
threatening complications.

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Glucometer

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Endocrine System Disorders 2

Diabetes Insipidus
• Diabetes insipidus is a problem of insufficient
ADH secretion from the posterior pituitary. The
symptoms are excessive thirst and excessive
urine production.

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Endocrine System Disorders 3

Growth Disorders
• Growth disorders are a problem of GH secretion
from the anterior pituitary.
• Gigantism
• Pituitary dwarfism
• Acromegaly

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Pituitary Dwarfism

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Acromegaly

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Endocrine System Disorders 4

Goiters
• Goiters can result from hyposecretion or
hypersecretion of thyroid hormone.
• Endemic goiter
• Toxic goiter
• Graves’ disease

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Endemic Goiter

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Endocrine System Disorders 5

Graves’ Disease
• Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder
• It is characterized by hypersecretion of thyroid
hormone

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Endocrine System Disorders 6

Hashimoto’s Disease
• Hashimoto’s disease is an autoimmune disorder
• It is characterized by hyposecretion of thyroid
hormone

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Endocrine System Disorders 7

Cushing’s Syndrome
• Graves’ disease is a collection of health
problems related to excess cortisol levels in the
blood
• It is due to hypersecretion of
adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH) from the pituitary
gland

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Cushing’s Syndrome

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Appendix of Image
Long Descriptions

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Overview - Appendix
4

The glands of the endocrine system are the pineal,

hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid and adrenal. It also
includes the pancreas, testes, and ovaries. It functions
include communication, and hormone production.

Jump to the image

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Communication of the Nervous and Endocrine
Systems - Appendix
Part (a) shows the neuron communicates by using action
potentials to deliver neurotransmitter substance to a
specific target tissue. Part (b) shows that endocrine cells
secrete hormones that travel through the bloodstream and
are delivered to target tissues with specific receptors.

Jump to the image

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Hypothalamus—Pituitary Relationship - Appendix

Part (b) shows the hypothalamus secreting releasing

hormones that travel into a plexus of capillaries and travel
down portal veins to another capillary plexus in the anterior
pituitary. Part (b) illustrates the neurons in the
hypothalamus sending axonal fibers down into the posterior
pituitary.

Jump to the image

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Location of Receptors for Protein Hormones -
Appendix
Part (1) shows a protein hormone. Part (2) shows the
receptors for protein hormones located on the target cell’s
surface. The hormone must bind to that receptor. Part (3)
shows the binding of hormone to receptor causing a
chemical reaction that forms an intracellular molecule of
cyclic adenosine monophosphate, which is a second
messenger. Part (4) shows the intracellularly formed cyclic
adenosine monophosphate resulting in a generic
conversion of substance A to substance B. Part (5) shows
that substance B then acts as an enzyme to convert
substance C to substance D; substance D causes some
type of intracellular chemical change.

Jump to the image

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Location of Receptors for Steroid Hormones -
Appendix
Part (1) illustrates a steroid hormone molecule. In part (2)
the steroid hormone molecule passes directly through the
cell membrane and attaches to a receptor in the cell
nucleus. Part (3) shows the hormone-receptor combination
causing transcription in the cell nucleus; messenger RNA is
formed. Step (4) involves the processed messenger RNA
exiting from the nucleus through a nuclear pore. Step (5)
shows formation of a protein; this specific protein’s
formation was dictated by the initial steroid hormone.

Jump to the image

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Negative Feedback Inhibition of the Hypothalamus
and Pituitary Gland by the Thyroid Gland - Appendix
Step (1) involves thyroid releasing hormone being secreted
by the hypothalamus. Step (2) shows thyroid releasing
hormone causing release of thyroid stimulating hormone
from the anterior pituitary. Step (3) involves thyroid
stimulating hormone causing the thyroid gland to secrete
thyroid hormone. Step (4) shows the thyroid hormone
acting on its target organs. Step (5) illustrates thyroid
hormone also acting in a negative feedback manner to
suppress further release of thyroid stimulating hormone
from the anterior pituitary. Step (6) shows that thyroid
hormone also acts in a negative feedback manner to
suppress further release of thyroid releasing hormone from
the hypothalamus.
Jump to the image
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Oxytocin’s Effect on Childbirth - Appendix

Step (1) shows the fetal head pushing against the cervix.
Step (2) involves nerve impulses from the cervix
transmitting impulses to the hypothalamus. Step (3) shows
the hypothalamus stimulating the posterior pituitary to
secrete oxytocin. In step (4) oxytocin stimulates uterine
contractions that push the fetus further towards the cervix.

Jump to the image

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Cushing’s Syndrome - Appendix

Part (a) is a photo of the central obesity and abdominal

striae seen in Cushing’s syndrome. Part (b) is a photo of
the moon face seen in an individual with Cushing’s
syndrome.

Jump to the image

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