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2
dvC
pC CvC
2
q
dt wC
2C
Capacitors in Parallel
Ceq for Capacitors in Parallel
iin i1 i2 i3 i4
dv dv
i1 C1 i2 C2
dt dt
i
dv dv
i3 C3 i4 C4
dt dt
dv dv dv dv
iin C1 C2 C3 C4
dt dt dt dt
dv
iin Ceq
dt
C eq C1 C2 C3 C4
Capacitors in Series
Ceq for Capacitors in Series
vin v1 v2 v3 v4
t1 t1
1 1
v1
C1 idt
to
v2
C2 idt
to
t1 i t1
1 1
v3
C3 idt
to
v4
C4 idt
to
t1 t1 t1 t1
1 1 1 1
vin
C1 t idt C2 t idt C3 t idt C4 idt
to
o o o
t1
1
vin
Ceq idt
to
C eq 1 C1 1 C2 1 C3 1 C4
1
General Equations for Ceq
Parallel Combination Series Combination
If P capacitors are in parallel, If S capacitors are in series,
then then:
1
P
S
1
Ceq CP Ceq
p 1 s 1 C s
Summary
Capacitors in dc circuits Vfinal
R
Iinitial
C
0 t
(b) Charging current
Summary
Capacitors in dc circuits
Vinitial
When a capacitor is discharged
through a resistor, the discharge
curve is also an exponential. (Note
that the current is negative.)
0 t
0 t
C VR
VS
40%
37%
Falling
τ RC 20%
14%
exponential
5%
2% 1%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Number of time constants
Summary
Capacitors are energy storage devices.
An ideal capacitor act like an open circuit at steady state when a
DC voltage or current has been applied.
The voltage across a capacitor must be a continuous function; the
current flowing through a capacitor can be discontinuous.
t1
dvC 1
iC C vC iC dt
dt C to
The equations for equivalent capacitance for
capacitors in parallel capacitors in series
1
P
S
1
Ceq CP Ceq
p 1 s 1 s
C
Inductors
An inductor is a passive element that stores energy in its magnetic field.
Generally. An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire wound around a core.
For the inductor
di (t ) i
v(t ) L +
dt
v L
where L is the inductance in henrys (H),
and 1 H = 1 volt second/ampere.
-
Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to
the change of current flowing through it.
Inductors
di (t )
v(t ) L
dt
1 t 1 t0 1 t
i (t ) v( x)dx v( x)dx v( x)dx
L L L t0
1 t
i (t ) i(t0 ) v( x)dx
L t0
where i(t0) = the total current evaluated at t0 and i() 0 (which is reasonable since
at some time there was no current in the inductor).
Energy stored in an inductor
The instantaneous power delivered to an inductor is
di
p (t ) vi Li
dt
The energy stored in the magnetic field is thus
di tt
wL (t ) p(t )dt L i dt L idi
dt
1 2
wL (t ) Li (t ) joules
2
An inductor has the following important properties:
di (t )
v(t ) L
v = 0 when i = a constant. dt
2. The current through an inductor cannot change
instantaneously, since an instantaneous change in current would
require an infinite voltage, which is not physically possible.
An inductor has the following important properties
3. Like the ideal capacitor, the ideal inductor does not dissipate energy.
4. A real inductor has a significant resistance due to the resistance of the coil,
as well as a “winding capacitance”. Thus, the model for a real inductor is
shown below.
RW L
CW
In this course, however, we will use ideal inductors and assume that an ideal
inductor is a good model.
Series Inductors L1 L2 LN
+
i
+ v 1- + v2 - + vN - DC v Leq
DC v -
i
di di di
v1 L1 v2 L2 vN LN
dt dt dt
di di
v v1 v2 vN L1 L2 LN Leq
dt dt
N
Leq Lk
k 1
1 1
1 iN
i1 vdt
L1
i2
L2 vdt
LN
vdt
1 1 1 1
i i1 i2 iN vdt vdt
L1 L2 LN Leq
N
1 1
Leq k 1 Lk
R
•What happens after you open the switch?
I
•Use Kirchoff’s Law on loop
–
+
•Integrate both sides of the equation
dI dI RI
0 L RI
dt dt L
dI R dI R
I
dt
L I L dt
Rt L
Rt
ln I constant I e
L
t L R I I 0 e t t
RL Circuits
Problems
The switch in the circuit of Fig. 7.16 has been closed
for a long time. At t = 0, the switch is opened. Calculate
i(t) for t > 0.
SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
Singularity functions are functions that either are
discontinuous or have discontinuous derivatives.
The three most widely used singularity functions in
circuit analysis are the unit step, the unit impulse, and
the unit ramp functions.
SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of t
and 1 for positive values of t.
Unit Step Input
RC – Forced Response
Q I
In this circuit, the capacitor is initially +
uncharged, but at t = 0 the switch is R
C – E
closed. What happens?
dQ dQ Q E
I
dt dt RC R
Q
0
C
IR E Q EC 1 et RC
STEP RESPONSE OF AN RC CIRCUIT
The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage
or a current source.
Consider the RC circuit in Fig., where Vs is a constant,
dc voltage source.
We assume an initial voltage V0 on the capacitor,
although this is not necessary for the step response.
Since the voltage of a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously
v(0−) = v(0+) = V0
STEP RESPONSE OF AN RC CIRCUIT
We know that the natural response is always a decaying exponential, that is,
The forced response is the value of the current a long time after he switch is
closed. We know that the natural response. At that time, the inductor
becomes a short circuit, and the voltage across it is zero. The entire source
voltage Vs appears across R. Thus, the forced response is
STEP RESPONSE OF AN RL
CIRCUIT
Substituting gives
where i(0) and i(∞) are the initial and final values of i.
Step Response
Thus, to find the step response of an RL circuit
requires three things:
The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.
The final inductor current i(∞).
The time constant τ .
Step Response RL - Problem
Find i(t) in the circuit in Fig. for t > 0. Assume that the
switch has been closed for a long time.
Step Response RL - Problem
At t = 0, switch 1 in Figis closed, and switch 2 is closed
4 s later. Find i(t) for t > 0. Calculate i for t = 2 s and
t = 5 s.
Questions?