Protocols and standards

A protocol is a set of rules that governs

communication. The key elements of a
protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
• Syntax.
Syntax refers to the structure or format of the
data,
• Semantics.
Semantics refers to the meaning of each
section of bits.
Timing.
T iming refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast it can be sent.
 Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an
open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers

De facto.
Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as
standards through widespread use are
de facto standards.

De jure.
De jure standards are those that have been legislated by an officially
rec ognized body.
 OSI REFERENCE MODEL
• An open system is a set of protocols that
allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying
architecture.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how
to facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the logic
of the underlying hardware and software.
 Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for moving individual bits from
one(node) to the next.
•Physical characteristics of interfaces and media.
The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices
and the transmission media.
❑Representation of bits.
The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits bits must be encoded into
signals—electrical or optical.
❑Data rate.
The number of bits sent each

❑Synchronization of bits.
The sender and receiver must not only use the same bit rate but must also be
synchronized at the bit level..

❑Line configuration.
The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media. In a
point-to-point configuration,two devices are connected together through a
dedicated
Physical topology.
The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected using a mesh topology
(every device connected to every other device), a star topology
(devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology
(each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), or a bus topology
(every device on a common link).

Transmission mode.
The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link.
Framing.
The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called
frames
❑Physical addressing.
If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data
link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame.

Flow control.
If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate produced at the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism
to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
❑Error control.
The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to
detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mecha-
nism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a
trailer added to the end of the frame.
❑Access control.
When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which ddevice has control over the
link at any given time.
 Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet,possibly across multiple networks (links).

logical addressing
The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender
and receiver.

Routing.
When independent networks or links are connected together to create
internetworks(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting
devices(called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their
final destination.
 Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery
of the entire message. A process is an application program running on the host.

service port addressing

The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address
called a service-point address (or port address). The network layer
gets each packet to the correct computer;
Segmentation and reassembly.
A message is divided into transmittable segments,
with each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable
the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.

Connection control.
The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented.

Flow control.
Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control. However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather
than across a single link.
❑Error control.
Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control.
 Session Layer
The services provided by the first four layers (physical, data link, network and
transport) are not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network
dialog controller.It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating systems.

Dialog control.
The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It
allows the communication between two processes to take place in either half-
duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

synchronization.
The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints (synchronization points)
into a stream of data.
 Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
informationexchanged between two systems.

❑Translation.
The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the com-
mon format into its receiver-dependent format.

Encryption.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out over the network.
Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its
original form.

Compression.
Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.
 Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access
the network.

Network virtual terminal.

A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal
and allows a user to log on to a remote host.

File transfer, access, and management (FTAM).

This application allows a userto access files in a remote host (to make changes
or read data), to retrieve files froma remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
E-mail services.
This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.

Directory services.
This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

protocol suite is the engine for the Internet and networks worldwide.

This model was initially developed & used by ARPANET

TCP/IP is modeled in layers. This layered representation leads

to the term protocol stack, which refers to the stack of layers in
the protocol suite.
Application Layer
The application layer is provided by the program that uses TCP/IP for
communication. An application is a user process cooperating with
another process usually on a different host (there is also a benefit to
application communication within a single host). Examples of
applications include Telnet and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

Transport Layer
The transport layer provides the end-to-end data transfer by delivering data
from an application to its remote peer. Multiple applications can be supported
simultaneously. The most-used transport layer protocol is the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), which provides connection-oriented reliable data
delivery, duplicate data suppression, congestion control, and flow control.
Another transport layer protocol is the User Datagram Protocol It provides
connectionless, unreliable, best-effort service. As a result, applications using
UDP as the transport protocol have to provide their own end-to-end integrity,
flow control, and congestion control, if desired. Usually, UDP is used by
applications that need a fast transport mechanism and can tolerate the loss of
some data.
Internetwork Layer
The internetwork layer, also called the internet layer or the network layer,
provides the “virtual network” image of an internet this layer shields the
higherlevels from the physical network architecture below it. Internet Protocol
(IP) is the most important protocol in this layer. It is a connectionless
protocol that does not assume reliability from lower layers. IP does not provide
reliability, flow control, or error recovery.
These functions must be provided at a higher level. IP provides a routing
function that attempts to deliver transmitted messages to their destination. A
message unit in an IP network is called an IP datagram.
This is the basic unit of information transmitted across TCP/IP networks. Other
internetwork-layer protocols are IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP.

Network Interface Layer

The network interface layer, also called the link layer or the data-link layer
or Host to Network Layer, is the interface to the actual network hardware.
This interface may or may not provide reliable delivery, and may be
packet or stream oriented.
 Addressing
There are four levels of address:-
1)Physical(link) address
2)Logical (IP)Address
3)Port Address
4)Application Specific Address
Address in TCP/IP protocol suite
application
message Application layer
specific add

segment Transport layer port add

datagram Network layer Logical add

frame Data link layer physical add

bits Physical layer

 Physical address
• link address
• Lowest level address
• Address of a node which is defined by its LAN
or WAN
• Size and format varies depending on the
network
• Unicast,multicast and broad cast
Example :-
 Logical address
 Necessary for universal communication
 32 bit address
 Unicast,multicast and broad cast
NOTE

Universal addressing system is needed in which each

host can be identified uniquely,regardles of the
underlying physical networks

132.24.75.9

An internet add in IPv4 in decimal numbers

Example:-
 Port Address
• 16 bit length
• In TCP/IP architecture the label assigned to a process is called
port address

NOTE

753
A 16-bit port address represented as one single number.
Port address
 Application Specific address
• User friendly address designed for specific
application
• Egs(email address,Url)
 Introduction to internetworking

• Internetworking was developed as a solution

to three key problems
• 1)isolated LANS
• 2)duplication of resources
• Lack of networkmanagement
 Merits of internetworking

• Universal service across dissimilar networks

• End to end connectivity between the hosts
• Transparency of data transfer
• Compactibility
• Organized network management
 Internetworking challenges
• Proper support for communication should be
available
• Reliability and confidentiality is must
• Configuration,security,performance must be
sufficiently solved
 Connection oriented and
connectionless internetworking
• Two distinct techniques to transmit data

1)connection oriented
1) connection establishment
2)data transfer
3) connection termination
2)connectionless
1)data transfer
 IP Addresses:
Classful Addressing
• IP address is used to identify each device which
is connected to internet
Note:
An IP address is a 32-bit address.
The IP addresses are unique and
universal
 Address space

• Total number of address used by the protocol

• If a protocol uses b bits to define an address
the address space is 2b
Note:

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.
 Address notation
• 1)binary notation(base 2)
• 2)dotted decimal notation(base 256)
• 3)hexadecimal notation(base 16)
Examples:-

10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 (binary)

129.11.11.239 (dotted decimal)

0x810B0BEF ( or) 810B0BEF 16 (hexa decimal)

problems
 note
• In dotted decimal there should not be any
leading zeros ex:111.56.045.78
• We may not have not more than 4 nos in IP
Address ex:111.56.45.78.92
• In dotted decimal each no is less than or equal
to 255 ex:111.56.45.78.258
• A mixture of binary and dotted decimal is not
allowed ex:11111101.56.45.78.258
 Classful addressing
• Classes
IP address space is divided into five classes
A,B,C,D and E
Occupation of the address space
Finding the class of an address
problems
Netid and hostid
 Blocks
• Each class is divided into a fixed number of
blocks
• Each block is having fixed size
 Blocks in class A
128 blocks:16,777,216 address in each blocks
Net id:0 Net id:1 Net id:127

0.0.0.0…….. 1.0.0.0…. 127.0.0.0….

0.255.255.255 1.255.255.255 127.255.255.255
……………

First,last block reserved for special purpose

One block(10.0.0.0-10.255.255.255)used for private address

1 byte in classA defines netid and the leftmost bit should be 0

=128 blocks,

= =16777216 address
Blocks in class B
16,384 blocks:65,536 address in each blocks
Net id:128.0 Net id:128.1 Net id:191.255

128.0.0.0…….. 128.1.0.0…. 191.255.0.0….

128.0.255.255 128.1.255.255 ………………. 191.255.255.255

16 blocks are reserved as private address

 Blocks in class C
2,097,152 blocks:256 address in each blocks
Net id:192.0.0 Net id:192.0.1 Net id:223.255.255

192.0.0.0…….. 192.0.0.1…. …………… 223.255.255.0….

192.0.0.255 192.0.1.255 223.255.255.255

256 blocks are Table 4.5 Addresses for private networks

reserved for
private address
 One block,268,435,456 address
Class D

224.0.0.0……..239.255.255.255

One block,268,435,456 address

Class E
240.0.0.0……..
255.255.255.255
note
• Millions of class A addresses are wasted.
• Many class B addresses are wasted
• The number of addresses in class C is smaller
than the needs of most organizations.
• Class D addresses are used for multicasting;
there is only one block in this class.
• Class E addresses are reserved for future
purposes; most of the block is wasted.
 Network address
• network address (the first address in the block)
is the one that is assigned to the organization.
• Network address defines the network
• Given the network address we can find the
class of address,the block,range of address in
the block.

problems
 Masking concept
32 bit number
Gives the network address

Default masks

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 47 problems

problems
 Subnetting and
Supernetting

• Subnetting—a network is divided into several

smaller subnetworks
• Each subnetwork has its own subnet work
address
 Addresses in a network with and without
s subnetting

Routing of IP data gram includes:-

delivery to site
delivery to subnet work
TCP/IP Protocol Suite delivery to host
50
 Comparison of a default mask and a
subnet mask

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 51

 supernetting
• In supernetting an organization can combines
several class C blocks to create a large range of
address
 Comparison of subnet, default, and
supernet masks

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 53

 Classless Addressing
VARIABLE-LENGTH BLOCKS
In classless addressing variable-length
blocks are assigned that belong to no class. In
this architecture, the entire address space (232
addresses) is divided into blocks of different
sizes.
No of address in a block needs to be a power of 2
 Prefix plays the role of net id

Suffix plays the role of host id

Prefix(n bits) Suffix(32-n)bits

Format of classless addressing address

Prefix lengths
 note

• In classless addressing, the last address

in the block does not necessarily end in
255.

In CIDR notation, the block granted is

defined by the first address and the
prefix length.
Subnetting

• When an organization is granted a block of

addresses, it can create subnets to meet its
needs. The prefix length increases to define the
subnet prefix length.
Address allocation

• Address allocation is the responsibility of a

global authority called the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and
Addresses (ICANN).

• ICANN ISP INTERNET USERS

ARP and RARP
• ARP associates an IP address with its physical
address. On a typical physical network, such
as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by
a physical or station address that is usually
imprinted on the NIC.
ARP operation

An ARP request is broadcast;

an ARP reply is unicast.
the system on the left (A) has a packet that
needs to be delivered to
another system (B) with IP address
141.23.56.23. System A needs to pass the
packet to
its data link layer for the actual delivery, but
it does not know the physical address of
the recipient. It uses the services of ARP by asking the ARP protocol to
send a broad-
cast ARP request packet to ask for the physical address of a system with
an IP address
of 141.23.56.23.
This packet is received by every system on the physical network, but only
system
B will answer it, as shown in Figure 8.2b. System B sends an ARP reply
packet that
includes its physical address. Now system A can send all the packets it
has for this des-
tination using the physical address it received.
ARP packet
Hardware type.
This is a 16-bit field defining the type of the network on which
ARP is running. Each LAN has been assigned an integer based
on its type. For
example, Ethernet is given the type 1. ARP can be used on any
physical network.
❑
Protocol type.
This is a 16-bit field defining the protocol. For example, the
value
of this field for the IPv4 protocol is 0800
16
. ARP can be used with any higher-level
protocol.
❑
Hardware length.
This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the physical address
in bytes. For example, for Ethernet the value is 6.
❑
Protocol length.
This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the logical address in
bytes. For example, for the IPv4 protocol the value is 4.
❑
Sender hardware address.
This is a variable-length field defining the physical
address of the sender. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6 bytes long.
❑
Sender protocol address.
This is a variable-length field defining the logical (for
example, IP) address of the sender. For the IP protocol, this field is 4 bytes
long.
❑
Target hardware address.
This is a variable-length field defining the physical
address of the target. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6 bytes long. For an
ARP request message, this field is all 0s because the sender does not know
the
physical address of the target.
❑
Target protocol address.
This is a variable-length field defining the logical (for
example, IP) address of the target. For the IPv4 protocol, this field is 4 bytes
long
Encapsulation of ARP packet
Four cases using ARP
 ARP package

• ARP software package involves five modules:

cache table-when a host/router receives the
corresponding physical address for an IP
datagram,it can be stored in the cashe table
• Queues –ARP package maintains a set of
queues one for each destination to hold IP
packets while ARP tries to resolve the h/w
address
output module-checks the cashe table tpo
find an entry corresponding to dest IP
address
input module- waits until an ARP packet
arrives.input module checks the cashe
table to find an entry corresponding to
this ARP packet
cache-control module.-periodically
checks the cashe table entry by entry
ARP components
 RARP

• RARP finds the logical address for a machine

that only knows its physical address.
RARP operation
RARP packet
Encapsulation of RARP packet
Internet Protocol

Header(20-60)bytes
datagram
data
 Internet protocol
• 1)unreliable
• 2)connectionless
• 3)each datagram is handled independently
• 4)datagram can take different route to
destination
• 5)datagram sent by the same source to same
destination could arrive out of order.
 Ip datagram
• Packets in ip layer are called datagrams.
• A datagram is a variable length packet
consisting of two parts header and data
IP datagram
Version :4 bit field defines the version of the IP protocol
two versions 4 and 6

Header length:total length of datagram.this field is needed because the

length of the header is variable.when there are no options the header
length is 20 bytes and if the option field is max size the value is 60.
Total length:total length of ip datagram.It is limited to 65535 bytes.

Time to live field:A datagram has limited life time in its travel through an
internet.This field was originally designed to hold a time stamp which was
decremented by each visited router This datagram was discarded when the
value became zero.
When a source host sends the datagram it stores a number in this field
.This value is approximately two times the maximum number of routes
between any two hosts

Protocol:defines higher level protocol that uses the service of ip layer

Protocols
Flags field
Option format
Categories of options
 Internet Control Message
Protocol

ICMP encapsulation
 Types of messages

The error-reporting messages report

problems that a router or a host
(destination) may encounter.
The query messages get specific
information from a router or another
host.
ICMP messages
General format of ICMP messages

Type-defines the type of the message

Code-specifies the reason for particular message type
Checksum-error detection
Rest of header-specific for each message type

Datasection(error reporting)carries information for

finding the original packet that had the error
Datasection(query messages)carries extra information
based on the query
 Note:

ICMP always reports error messages to

the original source.
Destination-unreachable format

Code0:n/w unreachable
Code:1 host unreachable
Code 2:protocol unreachable
Code 3:port unreachable
Code 4:fragmentation required,but DF field of the datagram
has been set
Code 5:source routing cannot be accomplished
Code 6:dest network unknown
Code 7:dest host unknown
Code 8:the source host is isolated
Code 9:communication with destination prohibited
Code 10:communication with dest host prohibited
Source-quench format

A source-quench message informs the source

Note: that a datagram has been discarded due to
congestion in a router or the destination host.

The source must slow down the sending of

datagrams until the congestion is relieved.

One source-quench message is sent for each

datagram that is discarded due to congestion.
 Time-exceeded message
format

Note:

Whenever a router decrements a

datagram with a time-to-live value to
zero, it discards the datagram and
sends a time-exceeded message to the
original source.
When the final destination does not receive
all of the fragments in a set time, it discards
the received fragments and sends a time-
exceeded message to the original source.

In a time-exceeded message, code 0 is used

only by routers to show that the value of the
time-to-live field is zero. Code 1 is used only
by the destination host to show that not all of
the fragments have arrived within a set time.
Parameter-problem message
format

A parameter-
problem message
can be created by a
router or the
destination host.
 Redirection message format

Redirection concept
 Note:

A host usually starts with a small

routing table that is gradually
augmented and updated. One of the
tools to accomplish this is the
redirection message.
QUERY
• a node sends a message that is answered in a
specific format by the destination node.
Echo-request and echo-reply messages
can test the reachability of a host. This
is usually done by invoking the ping
command.
Echo-request and echo-reply messages
can be used by network managers to
check the operation of the IP protocol.
An echo-request message ,echo-reply
message can be sent by a host or
router..
Echo-request and echo-reply messages
Timestamp-request and timestamp-
reply message format

Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply messages

can be used to calculate the round-trip time
between a source and a destination machine even
if their clocks are not synchronized.
Address Mask-request and mask-reply
message format
Router-solicitation message format

Router-advertisement message format

9.6 debugging tools(ICMP applications)

Ping (Packer InterNet Groper)

to find if a host is alive and responding
Uses echo request and echo reply messages to
determine if the host is reachable
Trace route

• Trace the route of a host

 Internet Group
Management Protocol

IGMP is a protocol that manages group

membership. The IGMP protocol gives the
multicast routers information about the
membership status of hosts (routers)
connected to the network. .
IGMP is a group management protocol.
It helps a multicast router create and
update a list of loyal members related
to each router interface.
IGMP message types
IGMP message format

IGMP type field

Max response time:defines the amount of

time in which a query must be answered
Checksum:carries the check sum
Group address:group id(multicast address
of the group) in special query
IGMP OPERATION
Joining a Group
Leaving a Group
Monitoring Membership
Joining a group
Membership report

In IGMP, a membership report is sent

twice, one after the other.
 Leave report

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 116

 General query message(monitoring
membership)

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 117

Encapsulation of IGMP packet
Connecting devices
 repeater
• A repeater is a device that operates only in the
physical layer. Signals that carry information within a
network can travel a fixed distance before
attenuation endangers the integrity of the data. A
repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes too
weak or corrupted, regenerates and retimes the
original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the
refreshed signal.

• A repeater forwards every bit; it has no

filtering capability
 bridges
A bridge operates in both the physical and the
data link layers.
As a physical-layer device, it regenerates the
signal it receives.
As a data link layer device, the bridge can check
the MAC addresses (source and destination)
contained in the frame.
 Difference between bridge and
repeater
• Filtering

• A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions

 Transparent bridge
• A transparent bridge is a bridge in which the
stations are completely unaware of the
bridge’s existence. If a bridge is added or
deleted from the system, reconfiguration of
the stations is unnecessary.
• Forwarding
• A transparent bridge must correctly forward
the frame
Learning
• The earliest bridges had forwarding tables that
were static. The system administrator would
manually enter each table entry during bridge
setup
A better solution to the static table is a dynamic
table that maps addresses to ports automatically.
To make a table dynamic, we need a bridge that
gradually learns from the frame movements. To do
this, the bridge inspects both the destination and
the source addresses. The destination address is
used for the forwarding decision (tablelookup); the
source address is used for adding entries to the
table and for updating purposes.
 router
• A router is a three-layer device; it operates in
the physical, data link, and network layers.
• As a physical layer device, it regenerates the
signal it receives.
• As a data link layer device, the router checks
the physical addresses (source and
destination) contained in the packet.
• As a network layer device, a router checks the
network layer addresses(addresses in the IP
layer).
 note
• A repeater or a bridge connects segments of
a LAN.
• A router connects independent LANs or
WANs to create an internetwork (internet).
 Differences between
router,repeater,bridge
• There are three major differences between a router and a repeater or a
bridge.
• 1.A router has a physical and logical (IP) address for each of its
interfaces.

• 2.A router acts only on those packets in which the physical destination
address matches the address of the interface at which the packet arrives.

• 3.A router changes the physical address of the packet (both source and
destination) when it forwards the packet.