MEMB453-NDT-Visual Inspection 2017

VT-MEMB453: 1 / 57
MEMB453
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)
VISUAL INSPECTION
Intro VI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mvLK5krEWAM
MEMB453- Visual Inspection

VT-MEMB453: 2 / 57
What is it?
Basic principles
Manual Vision Inspection
Automated or Machine Vision Inspection
Advantages and Limitations

VT-MEMB453: 3 / 57
Introduction
• Visual inspection is commonly defined as “the examination of a
material, component, or product for conditions of nonconformance
using light and the eyes, alone or in conjunction with various aids.
• Visual inspection often also involves, shaking, listening, feeling, and
sometimes even smelling the component being inspected.
• Visual inspection consists of at least two major processes.
– The first is a search process.
– The second is a process of combining relevant knowledge, sensory input, and
pertinent logical processes to provide an identification that some anomaly or
pattern represents a flaw that poses a risk to the performance of the part.
• Visual inspection is commonly employed to support other NDT
methods.
• Digital detectors and computer technology have made it possible to
automate some visual inspections. This is known as “machine vision
inspection.”

VT-MEMB453: 4 / 57
Introduction
• Visual inspection is the most basic and most commonly

employed NDT method.
• It is applicable to a wide variety of material types and
product forms.
• Several characteristics about the part being examined
may be determined, which include dimensional
conformance, the presence of discontinuities, general fit
and wear, and simple cosmetic compliance.
• It can be performed by direct or indirect methods during
various stages of manufacturing or after the component
has been placed in-service.

VT-MEMB453: 5 / 57
Introduction
• The quality of an inspection are affected primarily by four

factors.
– The quality of the detector (eye or camera).
– The lighting conditions.
– The capability to process the visual data.
– The level of training and attention to detail.

VT-MEMB453: 6 / 57
Introduction
Manual Versus Automated Inspection
• The majority of visual
inspections are completed
by an inspector, but
machine vision is becoming
more common.
• The primary advantage of an
inspector is their ability to quickly adapt to a variety of lighting
and other non-typical conditions, and their ability to use other
senses.
• The primary advantage of a machine vision inspection system is
their ability to make very consistent and rapid inspections of
specific details of a component.
• Machine vision is primarily used in production applications
where a large number of components require inspection and the
inspection conditions can be closely controlled.
VT-MEMB453: 7 / 57
Basic Principles – The Human Eye
• Light enters the eye through the

pupil and an image is projected
on the retina.
• Muscles move the eyeball in the
orbits and allow you to focus the
image on the central retina or
fovea.

VT-MEMB453: 8 / 57
Basic Principles – The Human Eye
The retina is a mosaic of two basic types of photoreceptors, rods and cones.
• Rods are sensitive to blue-green light and are used for vision under dark or dim
conditions.
• Cones operate only in relatively bright light, but they provide us with our
sharpest images and enable us to see colors. There are three types of cones
– L-cones are red absorbing cones or those that absorb best at the relatively
long wavelengths peaking at 565 nm
– M-cones are green absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 535 nm
– S-cones are blue absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 440 nm.

VT-MEMB453: 9 / 57
Basic Principles – Visual Acuity

• Cones provide us with our sharpest
images because most of the 3 million
cones in each retina are confined to a
small region just opposite the lens
called the fovea. The maximum
concentration is about 180,000 cones
per square mm.
• Our sharpest and most colorful
images are produced in the fovea.
• Outside of this region our vision is
relatively poor but, since we can
quickly redirect our eyes we tend not
to be aware of our poor peripheral
vision.

VT-MEMB453: 10 / 57
Basic Principles – Visual Acuity
b c
n
’ 180,000
There is a X
X/2 q
/ q q
’ Cones
1 mm
limit to what 2
b’
1 mm
the unaided
~425 by 425 cones
eye can ee. d d’
• Normal visual acuity or 20/20 vision is defined as the ability to resolve a spatial
pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute or 1/60 of a degree of arc.
• One degree of a scene is projected on about 290 micrometers of the retina.
• In 290 micrometers there are 123 cones and in 1/60 of a degree there 2 cones which
is the number required to resolve an object.
• The size of an object that can be seen at a given distance can be calculated using the
following formula: X = (d tan q/2)2
When visually inspecting an object for a defect, a comfortable viewing distance “d” might be
around 12 inches. At 12 inches, the normal visual acuity of the human eye is 0.0035 inch. (It must be
noted that this value is for the situation where there is good lighting and high contrast between the objects being
viewed.)
VT-MEMB453: 11 / 57
Basic Principles – Contrast Sensitivity

• Contrast sensitivity is a measure of how faded or
washed out an object can be before it becomes
indistinguishable from a uniform field
• It has been experimentally determined that the
minimum discernible difference in gray scale
level that the eye can detect is about 2% of full
brightness
• Contrast sensitivity varies with
– the size or spatial frequency
of a feature
– The lighting conditions
– Whether the object is lighter
or darker than the background
The graph to the right plots the visibility of a spot as a
function of the above variables

VT-MEMB453: 12 / 57
Basic Principles – Contrast Sensitivity

It should be noted, however,
that larger objects are not
always easier to see than
smaller objects as contrast is
reduced.
In this image:
– The luminance of pixels is varied
sinusoidally in the horizontal
direction. The spatial frequency
increases exponentially from
left to right.
– The contrast also varies
logarithmically from 100% at the
bottom to about 0.5% at the top. Campbell, F. W. and Robson, J. G. (1968) Application of Fourier analysis to the
visibility of gratings. Journal of Physiology (London) Image Courtesy of Izumi
– The luminance of peaks and If object visibility was dictated solely

Ohzawa, Ph.D. University of California School of Optometry
troughs remains constant along by image contrast, the alternating

a given horizontal path through the image. bright and dark bars should appear to
have equal height everywhere in the
image. However, the bars seem to be
taller in the middle of the image.
VT-MEMB453: 13 / 57
Basic Principles – Light Levels
• Under normal lighting conditions the cones

are operating and the eye has good visual
acuity and is most sensitive to greenish
yellow color, which has a wavelength
around 555 nanometers (photopic curve).
• When the light levels drop to near total
darkness, the response of the eye changes
significantly as shown by the scotopic
response curve on the left.
• At this level of light, the rods are most
active and the human eye is more sensitive
to any amount of light that is present, but is
less sensitive to the range of color.
• At this very low light level, sensitivity to
blue, violet, and ultraviolet is increased, but
sensitivity to yellow and red is reduced.
VT-MEMB453: 14 / 57
Basic Principles –
Light Intensity Measurement
• Effective visual inspection requires adequate lighting.
• The type of inspection will dictate the lighting
requirements. Inspection of components with fine
detail and low contrast will require greater
illumination than components with large details and
high contrast.
• Light intensity may be measured with a suitable light
meter. The unit of measure for white light is foot-
candles (fc).
– A foot-candle is equal to the amount of direct light
thrown by one standard candle at a distance of 1 foot.
• Inspection of components with fine detail and low
contrast may require 100 foot-candles or more.
• Specification requirements for lighting should be
reviewed prior to performing an inspection.

Basic Principles – VT-MEMB453: 15 / 57
Light Directionality
• The directionality of the light
is a very important
consideration.
• For some applications, flat,
even lighting works well.
• For other applications,
directional lighting is better
because it produces
shadows that are larger than
the actual flaw and easier to
detect.

Basic Principles – Perspective VT-MEMB453: 16 / 57
The eye/brain need visual clues

to determine perspective.
Is the book facing towards

or away from you?
VT-MEMB453: 17 / 57
Basic Principles – Optical Illusions
Sometime the eye/mind has trouble correctly processing

visual information.
Are the horizontal lines parallel or

How many black dots do you s
do they slope?
VT-MEMB453: 18 / 57
Basic Principles – Vision

• When evaluations are made by an
inspector, eye examinations must be
done at regular intervals to assure
accuracy and sensitivity. These
examinations may consist
of the following:
• Near Vision (Jaeger)
• Far Vision (Snellen)
• Color Differentiation
• When using machine vision, different
but similar performance checks must
be performed.

VT-MEMB453: 19 / 57
Basic Principles
• For best results the inspector or machine vision

operator must have:
– A basic knowledge of material processing, forming,
machining and joining processes.
– A general understanding of design features, application
and service requirements.
– Specific instructions on what to look for and specific
accept/reject criteria.

VT-MEMB453: 20 / 57
Inspection Applications
Applications for visual inspection and many and range from
looking a product over for obvious defect to performing
detailed inspections. Some of the common applications
include:
• Detection of surface anomalies such as scratches, excess
surface roughness, and areas void of paint or plating.
• Crack, porosity, corrosion or other flaw detection.
• Dimensional conformance.
• Precision measurements.
• Foreign object detection.
• Component location.

VT-MEMB453: 21 / 57
Inspection Applications – Flaw Detection
• Visual inspection of
manufactured materials
and components is a cost
effective means of
identifying flaws.
• Visual inspection of a
casting reveals a crack
between a threaded
opening and a pressed fit.
• The aluminum sand
casting has hot tears and
shrinkage at the transition
zones.

VT-MEMB453: 22 / 57
In-service inspections of existing

components and structures is
commonly accomplished visually.
• In this example, visual

inspection of a fire escape
reveals a failure in a handrail
tube.
• The failure is in the tube seam
and is likely the result of ice
expansion.

VT-MEMB453: 23 / 57
Normal inspection practices for

highway bridges rely almost
entirely on visual inspection to
evaluate the condition of the
bridges.

VT-MEMB453: 24 / 57
Over 80 percent of all

aircraft inspections are
performed visually.

VT-MEMB453: 25 / 57
Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
• Weld quality requirements
are commonly determined
through visual inspection.
• Many standards have
established acceptance
criteria for welds.
Transverse weld
crack
Slag rolled into toe of

weld
VT-MEMB453: 26 / 57
Dimensional Conformance
• Visual inspection is commonly employed for

general dimensional conformance, assembly fit,
and alignment between components.
• Common applications include determining:
– Weld size and tolerance.
– Component dimensions.
– Material alignment and allowable distortion.

VT-MEMB453: 27 / 57
Welds are commonly inspected for dimensional tolerance.
• There are several types of gages used to inspect welding fit
up and finished weldments.
• These gages are intended for general inspection where close
tolerances are not required.
• The gage used is determined by the application.
Palmgren
Fillet gage gage
set
VWAC gage
Cambridge
gage
VT-MEMB453: 28 / 57
Visual inspection is commonly used to determine weld size and
tolerances according to standards and engineering
specifications.
Throat Leg size Convexity

measurement using determination with measurement with
a Palmgren gage. fillet gage. VWAC gage.

VT-MEMB453: 29 / 57
Undercut in a weld is readily seen visually. In many cases
its depth must be measured to determine if it exceeds code
requirements.
Undercut
Measurement of
undercut depth with
VWAC gage.
VT-MEMB453: 30 / 57
Component finish dimensions are checked with the use of
measurement devices, such as transferring gages and
precision measurement gages.
The finished depth of a Small hole gage used

machined mold is in determining hole
determined with a depth diameter.
micrometer.
VT-MEMB453: 31 / 57
Alignment/Distortion
• Visual inspection frequently involves
checking materials and components for fit
and alignment.
• Many standards establish allowable
tolerances for fit and distortion.
• Structural fabrication requires dimensional
inspection of finished components prior to
shipment to the field site.
• Basic tools are used for the inspection. An
inspector will set up string lines at known
distances and plum them using a tape In this image a
measure. Measurements are then taken at fabricated girder is
various locations and compared to code being inspected for
requirements. distortion, sweep
and web flatness.
VT-MEMB453: 32 / 57
Equipment
• Visual inspection equipment includes a variety
of different tools. These may range from basic
rulers, tape measures and spring type calipers to
rigid or flexible borescopes and remote crawlers
with cameras.
• Many tools have been designed for specific
applications such as the various weld gauges.
• Some of the specialized tools such as crawlers
have been designed to satisfy the inspection
needs in applications where conventional
techniques are not feasible.

VT-MEMB453: 33 / 57
Equipment – Basic Measurements

• One of the most common tools used
in visual inspection is the rule or
scale.
• Used to measure linear dimensions,
when properly used will measure
within 0.015” or 1/64” and smaller.
• Rules are made in a variety lengths,
widths, and thicknesses.
• They are graduated in common
fractions, decimal units, and metric
units, or combinations of both.
• The specific type of rule is typically
chosen relative to the application.

Equipment – VT-MEMB453: 34 / 57
Precision Measurements
• Sliding calipers are a
precision refinement of the
common rule, which
results in greater accuracy
of measurements.
• They may incorporate
either a dial indicator or
digital readout.
• Sliding-type calipers are
commonly used to check
dimensional tolerances of
machined components,
wear on components, and
fit between components.

• Micrometers are precise
measurement instruments
used to make accurate
direct readings in contact
measurements.
• Micrometers are designed
for inside, outside, and
depth measurements, and
are available in a wide
variety of shapes and sizes.
• Micrometers may be either
thousandth inch (.001”) or
ten thousandth inch
(.0001”) measurement
capable.

• Micrometers operate on
the principle that a
precision made screw with
a pitch of forty threads per
inch will advance one
fortieth of an inch (.025”)
with each complete turn.
• On a one inch micrometer,
the sleeve is marked
longitudinally with forty
lines to the inch which
corresponds to the number
of threads on the spindle.

• The reading line on the
sleeve is divided into forty
equal parts by vertical
lines, each designates
1/40th” or .025” and every
fourth line denotes
hundreds of thousandths
and is numbered 1 – 0.
• The beveled edge of the
thimble is divided into
twenty five equal parts
with each representing
.001”, with every line
numbered from 0 -24.

VT-MEMB453: 38 / 57
Equipment –
Example:
– One major division on the sleeve
is visible, representing one tenth
of an inch.
– Two minor divisions are visible,
which each represent an
additional 25 thousandths.
– Line 15 on the thimble coincides
with the reading line on the 0.100”
sleeve indicating that fifteen one
thousandths of an inch should be (2 X 0.025)
added to the measurement. 0.050”
– By adding all three values, the (15 X .001)
micrometer reading is obtained.
0.015”
0.165”
VT-MEMB453: 39 / 57
Equipment –
Reading the ten thousandths micrometer.
• The ten thousandths micrometer
incorporates a vernier scale.
• The vernier consists of ten divisions the
sleeve, which occupies the same space as nine
divisions on the beveled edge of the thimble.
• The difference between one of the ten spaces
on the sleeve and one of the nine spaces on
the thimble is 1/10th of a division or 0.0001”.

VT-MEMB453: 40 / 57
Equipment –
Example:
−The second major divisions (line 2) on the sleeve is visible (2 x
0.100” = 0.200”)
−Three minor divisions after line 2 are visible (3 X 0.025” = 0.075”)
−The beveled edge of the thimble is between 0 and 1 (0 x 0.001 = 0)
−The vernier scale has the sixth line on the sleeve perfectly lined up
with one of the marks on the thimble ( 6 x 0.0001 = 0.0006”)
−The micrometer reading is: 0.2756”
0.200”
0.075”
0.000”
0.0006”
0.2756”
VT-MEMB453: 41 / 57
Equipment – Transferring Gauges

• Transfer instruments are
used to take measurements
which are transferred to
direct measurement
devices.
• They consist of calipers,
dividers, telescoping gages
and small hole gages.

VT-MEMB453: 42 / 57

• Spring type calipers are available
for contact measurements of inside
and outside dimensions.
• They are useful for measuring
distances between and over
surfaces.
• They are commonly used to
transfer dimensions or sizes
between the work piece and
standard measuring devices, such
as graduated rules.
• The size of a linear or rounded
indication of a discontinuity may
be measured with dividers.
VT-MEMB453: 43 / 57

• Small hole gages are a type of transfer instrument used to
measure small holes or slots.
• They are generally supplied in sets with a range of 1/8” -
1/2”.
• The actual measurement is determined by transferring a
properly adjusted gage to a micrometer.

VT-MEMB453: 44 / 57

• Telescoping gages make
inside measurements such
as hole diameter and slot
width.
• They are designed to be
measured by a micrometer
after being set to the hole or
slot size.
• To make accurate
measurements it is
important to make sure the
telescoping gage is aligned
properly in the measuring
faces of the micrometer.

VT-MEMB453: 45 / 57
Equipment – Screw Pitch Gage

• The screw pitch gage is a
basic visual aid for
checking the number of
threads per inch and rough
inaccuracies of threads.
• The gage consists of a steel
case with a number of
folding leaves at each end.
• Each leaf is number and
contains teeth
corresponding to a specific
thread pitch.

VT-MEMB453: 46 / 57
Direct and Remote Visual Inspection

• Many codes refer to direct visual examination as a visual
inspection which requires that access to the area is sufficient
to place the eye within 24 inches of the surface to be
examined and at an angle of not less than 30º to that
surface.
• If these requirements cannot be met, then remote visual
inspection may be used.
• Remote visual inspection may be accomplished with the use
of a number of optical aids such as, mirrors, magnifiers,
and rigid or flexible borescopes.

VT-MEMB453: 47 / 57
Optical Aids
• Mirrors are valuable aids in visual
inspection, they allow the inspection of
threaded and bored holes, inside
surfaces of pipes and fittings, as well
as many others.
• Magnifiers assist the visual inspector
by enlarging the size of the object
being examined.
• Comparators are a magnifier with a
measuring capability. The
comparator has interchangeable
reticles which provide measurements
for threads, angles, linear
measurement, diameters and radii.

VT-MEMB453: 48 / 57
Optical Aids
• Borescopes are visual aids used for the inspection of
internal surface areas.
• They are designed for remote viewing in difficult to reach
areas such as jet engines, cylinders, tanks, and various
enclosed chambers.
• Borescopes are available in many different diameters and
lengths, and are classified as rigid or flexible.

VT-MEMB453: 49 / 57
Visual Inspection With A Borescope
Clean Surface Corrosion Damage

VT-MEMB453: 50 / 57
Optical Aids
• Advances in technology has allowed video

equipment to be adapted to portable and robotic
devices.
• Portable video probes allow inspectors to remotely
perform examinations in closed chambers which
are inaccessible by convention inspection means.
• Robotics have been developed whereby cameras
can be affixed to crawlers and submersibles.
– Retrieval tools can be affixed to robotics to
remove foreign objects.
• Conventional recording techniques may
be employed for image capture and
storage with many of the remote video
inspection methods.
VT-MEMB453: 51 / 57
Machine Vision Inspection

VT-MEMB453: 52 / 57
Machine Vision – Basic Principles

• Machine vision technology uses an imaging system
and a computer to analyze an image and to make
decisions based on that analysis.
• In inspection applications, the machine vision optics
and imaging system enable the processor to "see"
objects precisely and thus make decisions about
which component meet a specific inspection criteria.
• Machine vision can eliminate human factor error
that might result from doing difficult, tedious, or
boring tasks. It also allows process equipment to be
utilized 24 hours a day.

Machine Vision – Basic Principles
VT-MEMB453: 53 / 57
The following process steps are common to all machine

vision applications:
• Image acquisition: An optical system gathers an image, which is then
converted to a digital format and stored into computer memory.
• Image processing: A computer processor uses various algorithms to
enhance elements of the image that are of specific importance to the
process.
• Feature extraction: The processor identifies and quantifies critical
features in the image (e.g., the position of holes on a printed circuit
board, the number of pins in a connector, the orientation of a
component on a conveyor) and sends the data to a control program.
• Decision and control: The processor's control program makes
decisions based upon the data. Are the holes within specification? Is a
pin missing?

VT-MEMB453: 54 / 57
Machine Vision - Equipment

Key System Elements
• A variety of components are
included in a machine vision
system, which depend on the
environment, the application,
and the budget. However, the
following components are
common to all vision systems :
– Front-end optics: this includes the lighting, the lens, and the camera.
– Frame grabber: this is a computer processor board that accepts the
video input from the camera, digitizes it, and stores it for analysis.
– Processor: A computer processor is required to control the vision
application.
– Control Software: Computer software is used for controlling and
executing vision tasks.

VT-MEMB453: 55 / 57
Advantages of Visual Inspection
• Readily used on almost all materials.

• Simple to perform.
• Low in cost, (application dependent).
• Relatively quick.
• Results may be permanently recorded.
• Can be automated.

VT-MEMB453: 56 / 57
Limitations of Visual Inspection
• Direct inspections are limited to surfaces only.

• Indirect inspections require greater inspector
knowledge and training.
• Inspector dependent, knowledge of materials and
processing, eye sight.
• Standards (workmanship) may be difficult to
obtain.

VT-MEMB453: 57 / 57
Lesson Learned (?!....)

MEMB453-NDT-Visual Inspection 2017

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

MEMB453-NDT-Visual Inspection 2017

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

VT-MEMB453: 1 / 57

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Manual Vision Inspection

Automated or Machine Vision Inspection

Advantages and Limitations

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

• Visual inspection is the most basic and most commonly

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

• The quality of an inspection are affected primarily by four

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Basic Principles – The Human Eye

• Light enters the eye through the

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Basic Principles – The Human Eye

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Basic Principles – Visual Acuity

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Basic Principles – Visual Acuity

Basic Principles – Contrast Sensitivity

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Basic Principles – Contrast Sensitivity

– The luminance of peaks and If object visibility was dictated solely

troughs remains constant along by image contrast, the alternating

Basic Principles – Light Levels

• Under normal lighting conditions the cones

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

The eye/brain need visual clues

Is the book facing towards

Basic Principles – Optical Illusions

Sometime the eye/mind has trouble correctly processing

Are the horizontal lines parallel or

Basic Principles – Vision

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

• For best results the inspector or machine vision

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Inspection Applications – Flaw Detection

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Inspection Applications – Flaw Detection

In-service inspections of existing

• In this example, visual

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Inspection Applications – Flaw Detection

Normal inspection practices for

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Inspection Applications – Flaw Detection

Over 80 percent of all

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Slag rolled into toe of

• Visual inspection is commonly employed for

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Throat Leg size Convexity

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

The finished depth of a Small hole gage used

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

Equipment – Basic Measurements

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

MEMB453- Visual Inspection

MEMB453- Visual Inspection