Mathematics I

Dr. Aprilina Purbasari, ST, MT

References
• Herman, E.J. & Strang, G., Calculus, vol. 1-3, 2016,
OpenStax, Houston.
• Lipschutz, S. & Lipson, M.L., Linear Algebra, 4th
edition, 2009, McGraw-Hill, New York.
• Spiegel, M. & Wrede, R.C., Kalkulus Lanjut, edisi 2,
2002, Penerbit Erlangga, Jakarta.
• Stroud, K.A., Matematika untuk Teknik, edisi 3, 1992,
Penerbit Erlanga, Jakarta.
Vectors
Definition

• A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and

direction.
• Vectors are said to be equivalent vectors if they have
the same magnitude and direction.
• The product kv of a vector v and a scalar k is a vector with a
magnitude that is |k| times the magnitude of v, and with a
direction that is the same as the direction of v if k > 0, and
opposite the direction of v if k < 0.
• This is called scalar multiplication.
• If k = 0 or v = 0, then kv = 0.
• The sum of two vectors v and w can be constructed
graphically by placing the initial point of w at the terminal
point of v.
• Then, the vector sum, v + w, is the vector with an initial point
that coincides with the initial point of v and has a terminal
point that coincides with the terminal point of w.
• This operation is known as vector addition.
• The vector with initial point (0, 0) and terminal point
(x, y) can be written in component form as v = <x, y>.
The scalars x and y are called the components of v.

• Let v be a vector with initial point (xi, yi) and terminal

point (xt, yt). Then we can express v in component
form as v = < xt- xi, yt- yi>.
• Let v = < x1, y1> and w = < x 2, y2> be vectors,
and let k be a scalar.
• Scalar multiplication:
kv = < kx1 , ky1>
• Vector addition:
v + w = < x1, y1> + < x2, y2> = < x1+ x2, y1+ y2>
• To find the magnitude of a vector, we calculate the
distance between its initial point and its terminal
point.
• The magnitude of vector v = < x, y > is denoted
||v||, or |v|, and can be computed using the
formula:
Unit vectors

• A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1.

• For any nonzero vector v, we can use scalar multiplication to
find a unit vector u that has the same direction as v.
• To do this, we multiply the vector by the reciprocal of its
magnitude:
• The standard unit vectors are the vectors i = <1,0> and j =
<0,1>.

• By applying the properties of vectors, it is possible to express

any vector in terms of i and j in what we call a linear
combination:
• Thus, v is the sum of a horizontal vector with
magnitude x, and a vertical vector with magnitude y,
as in the following figure.
Vectors in Three Dimensions

• The three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system consists

of three perpendicular axes: the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-
axis.
• Because each axis is a number line representing all real
numbers in R , the three-dimensional system is often denoted
by R3.
• The standard unit vectors extend easily into three
dimensions as well— i = < 1, 0, 0 > , j = < 0, 1, 0 > ,
and k = < 0, 0, 1 > —and we use them in the same
way we used the standard unit vectors in two
dimensions.
• Thus, we can represent a vector in R3 in the following
ways:
The Dot Product

• The dot product of vectors u = < u1, u2, u3> and v =

< v1, v2, v3> is given by the sum of the products of
the components.
u · v = u1v1 + u2v2 + u3v3
• The angles formed by a nonzero vector and the
coordinate axes are called the direction angles for
the vector (Figure 2.48).
• The cosines for these angles are called the direction
cosines.
The Cross Product
• The cross products of the standard unit vectors i, j, and k can
be useful for simplifying some calculations, so let’s consider
these cross products.
• A straightforward application of the definition shows that:

• Furthermore, because the cross product of two vectors is

orthogonal to each of these vectors, we know that the cross
product of i and j is parallel to k. Similarly, the vector product
of i and k is parallel to j, and the vector product of j and k is
parallel to i. We can use the right-hand rule to determine the
direction of each product. Then we have:
• Determinants and the Cross Product
The Triple Scalar Product
Torque
Vector Field

• A vector field in R2 can be represented in either of two equivalent ways.

The first way is to use a vector with components that are two-variable
functions:
F(x, y) = < P(x, y), Q(x, y) > .
• The second way is to use the standard unit vectors:
F(x, y) = P(x, y)i + Q(x, y)j.
• A vector field is said to be continuous if its component functions are
continuous.
Divergence
• Divergence is an operation on a vector field that tells us how the field
behaves toward or away from a point.
• Locally, the divergence of a vector field F in R2 or R3 at a particular point P
is a measure of the “outflowing-ness” of the vector field at P.
• If F represents the velocity of a fluid, then the divergence of F at P
measures the net rate of change with respect to time of the amount of
fluid flowing away from P (the tendency of the fluid to flow “out of” P).
• In particular, if the amount of fluid flowing into P is the same as the
amount flowing out, then the divergence at P is zero.
• To illustrate this point, consider the two vector fields in Figure
6.50.
• At any particular point, the amount flowing in is the same as
the amount flowing out, so at every point the “outflowing-
ness” of the field is zero.
• Therefore, we expect the divergence of both fields to be zero,
and this is indeed the case, as
• By contrast, consider radial vector field R (x, y) = < -x, -y > in Figure 6.51.
• At any given point, more fluid is flowing in than is flowing out, and
therefore the “outgoingness” of the field is negative.
• We expect the divergence of this field to be negative, and this is indeed
the case, as
Curl
• The second operation on a vector field that we examine is the curl, which
measures the extent of rotation of the field about a point.
• Suppose that F represents the velocity field of a fluid.
• Then, the curl of F at point P is a vector that measures the tendency of
particles near P to rotate about the axis that points in the direction of this
vector.
• The magnitude of the curl vector at P measures how quickly the particles
rotate around this axis.
• In other words, the curl at a point is a measure of the vector field’s “spin”
at that point.
• Visually, imagine placing a paddlewheel into a fluid at P, with the axis of
the paddlewheel aligned with the curl vector (Figure 6.54).
• The curl measures the tendency of the paddlewheel to rotate.