Introduction and Overview

Dynamic Psychology
 Introduction
• The concept of motivation appears in many fields
of psychology.
– Need to be motivated in order to LEARN
– The innate motivation of the child to master the
environment in order to DEVELOP
– The motivated selectivity in the processing of
environmental stimuli in order to PERCEIVE
– The motivation to improve in order to benefit from
CLINICAL INTERVENTION and so on
• Hence, MOTIVATION lies at the HEART, the very
CENTER, of psychology
 Def’n of MOTIVATIONAL Psychology
• The most encompassing definition of the
subject matter of the field of motivation is
• “Why Human and subHuman organisms think
and behave as they do?
• Others:
– Study of motivation broadly as a Search for
Determinants (all determinants) of human and
animal activity.
 Introduction
• Questions about motivation, then, are
questions about the CAUSES OF SPECIFIC
ACTIONS
– Why does this organism, this person or rat or
monkey, do this particular thing we see it do?
 The Study of MOTIVATION is the SEARCH for
PRINCIPLES that will help us UNDERSTAND WHY
people and animals INITIATE, CHOOSE, or PERSIST
in, specific actions in specific circumstances
 Introduction
• Motivational Psychologist  OBSERVE & MEASURE :
• TERMS:
• CHOICE BEHAVIOR: What the individual is doing;
• LATENCY OF BEHAVIOR: How LONG it takes before the
individual INITIATES that activity when given the
opportunity;
• INTENSITY OF BEHAVIOR: How HARD the individual is
working at that activity,
• PERSISTENCE OF BEHAVIOR: What LENGTH of TIME the
individual will remain at that activity; and
• EMOTIONAL REACTIONS: What the individual is feeling
before, during, or after the behavioral episode.
 MOTIVATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS
• THEN…. • NOW…
– Concerned with – More interested in
ACTIVATION (what CHOICE (what activities
INITIATES behavior) an organism undertakes)
– FOCUSED on – Current concerns include
OBSERVABLE ACTIONS JUGDMENTS and
EMOTIONAL FEELINGS

HOWEVER, the MOTIVATIONAL QUESTION

has REMAINED WHY --- that is, not HOW
one LEARNS or HOW one perceives, but
RATHER WHY One ACTS
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A “GOOD”
MOTIVATIONAL EXPLANATION
• WHAT IS MEANT BY
“BETTER” ANSWER to a
motivational Question than
the layperson can provide?
• It may be that the
explanation is more
ACCURATE  it improves
predictions of the future as
well as predictions about
other concurrent reactions
• On the other hand, if the
Motivational psychologist
Believes that the “WHY
FAILURE” answer is Lack of
EFFORT, then he or she
might anticipate success for
the student if circumstances
can be changed so that the
student is more engaged in
learning.

ACCURACY of prediction is one indicator of

the “CORRECTNESS” of the motivational
diagnosis
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A “GOOD”
MOTIVATIONAL EXPLANATION
• The WHY ANSWER is a TRAIT, a
stable characteristic of the
person that unfortunately
often merely defines or
describes the behavior to be
explained
• Layperson attributes
motivation to Trait, internal to
person
• Example: The naïve observer
often simplistically places the
answer to a why question
within the acting person
• Reluctance to accept a date is
interpreted as dues to
“shyness” or “introversion”
• There are typically many
determinants of an action,
interacting in intricate ways:
– Determinants located within
the person (traits,states, moods
or emotions), conscious
thought, unconscious attitudes
– Determinants within the
environment
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A “GOOD”
MOTIVATIONAL EXPLANATION
• A “good” explanation is one • Example:
that may be applied in • When a layperson explains
different situations to why an individual is drinking
interpret specific actions water, he or she may say that
– That is, a scientific explanation the person is thirsty. When the
includes GENERAL Principles layperson accounts for why
that Transcend the specific another individual is eating, he
Instance
or she may infer that the
person is hungry.
The Motivational psychologist, in contrast, attempts to use
the same constructs to interpret both instances. It could be
postulated, for example, that the BEHAVIOR is Directly
related to the amount of DEPRIVATION (whether WATER or
FOOD), the level of AROUSAL (whether the source of
arousal is the absence of water or food) and so on..
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A “GOOD”
MOTIVATIONAL EXPLANATION
• Thus the same concept • One of the goals of
explains disparate science is the
particular cases DEVELOPMENT of
• The analysis shifts from General Explanatory
concrete instances to Principles
abstract issues, such as
the presence of any
need.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A “GOOD”
MOTIVATIONAL EXPLANATION
• Further assume that a
person is observed to
improve at a skill-related
task after some practice.
– Ex. With experience, typing
goes faster
– Layperson explains the
improvement as due to
learning or skill acquisition
• “Practice makes perfect”
• totally removed from
motivational question of
WHY an individual is
drinking water or eating.
• The motivational
psychologist, however,
attempts to COMPRISE
these very disparate
observations within the
same theoretical network
or explanatory system.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A “GOOD”
MOTIVATIONAL EXPLANATION
• Perhaps, it is postulated • One might be able to
that behavior is predict not only how long
determined by the a person will play
amount of deprivation & basketball, but also the
the number of rewarded percentage of successful
experiences. shots.
• Thus, a very parsimonious
explanation for an array
of phenotypically
divergent behavior is
supplied
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A “GOOD”
MOTIVATIONAL EXPLANATION
• THE TASK OF A MOTIVATIONAL • A WHY ANSWER is provided
PSYCHOLOGIST is TO with a particular end or
ACCOUNT FOR OR EXPLAIN AS Purpose in mind, without
BROAD A SWATH OF reference to wider
BEHAVIOR AS POSSIBLE WITH applications.
A FEW CONSTRUCTS AS • The GOAL of mOtivational
POSSIBLE. psychology is to DEVELOP a
language, an explanatory
system, a CONCEPTUAL
representation, or what is
more commonly term,
THEORY, that is applicable
across many domains of
behavior & explains WHY
behavior is INITIATED,
SUSTAINED, DIRECTED, and so
forth.
 THE NATURE OF BEING
• Pre-darwinian Thoughts • MIND and BODY
• More central to the • Metaphysical system (two
distinction between the basic elements)
determinants of – Monistic systems
subhuman versus human (consisting only body or
actions physical elements)
• This differentiation is – Dualistic systems (including
both mind and body)
intimately connected with
what has been called the • The elements in both
“MIND – BODY” problem Mono and Dual systems
in philosophy are called Mind and/or
Body, or spirit and/or
matter
 THE NATURE OF BEING
• The MIND is conceived as
subjective, nonmaterial, and
known only by the possessing
individual
• The mind – body distinction is
consistent with the self-
observation that when the
body is inert, as during sleep,
there is mental activity such as
dreaming.
• Thus, the SPIRIT or soul
inhabits the body yet is
independent of the body.
• The BODY is considered
physical, material, and
objectively observable
• It typically is accepted that
the mind is the location or
seat of the intellect and
rationality,
• Is superior to the body.
• TO UNDERSTAND THE
CONTRAST BETWEEN THE
PERCEIVED CAUSES OF
SUBHUMAN & HUMAN
BEHAVIOR, ONE MUST BE
AWARE OF SOME OF THE
SOCIAL & CULTURAL
INFLUENCES ON
PSYCHOLOGICAL THINKING
 CONCEPTIONS OF HUMAN
• The general metaphysical
beliefs about humans prior to
Darwin, & continuing after his
writings, were that they were
created by God and that they
were created in the image of
God
• Humans were considered
uniquely rational and had
souls, properties bestowed by
God
• The rational thoughts partakes
in what is defined as
immortality
• Further, humans also were
believed to have bodies that
were the source of desires &
the origin of physical forces
exerting internal pressure on
the organism
• The belief in a mind-body
coexistence, or what is known
as Cartesian dualism – every
human being has both a body
and a mind
• -after the death of the body,
the mind continue to exist &
function
 CONCEPTIONS OF HUMAN
• Bodily processes & states • Dualistic position: there
can be inspected by are a number of possible
external observers positions regarding “how
• The working of one’s a person’s mind and body
mind are not witnessable influence one another.”
by other observers; its • Viewpoint is that they in
career is private fact do not influence one
another, but are
completely independent
Mind (thought): A ………. B ………. C
Body (action) : A’ ………. B’ ……… C’
Ex: Perhaps sexual forces originating in the body lead one to think about sexual behavior,
to experience a sexual “intention” toward another, and to approach that other. However,
given this model, the thoughts and intentions do not affect the action, which is entirely
determined by bodily processes, such as automatic reflexes or fixed instincts. The
thoughts or actions of the mind are then considered epiphenomena (epi indicates
“upon”)
 CONCEPTIONS OF HUMAN
• In contrast with this position of
independence are beliefs
accepting interaction.
• Viewpoint: The mind intervenes
between bodily desires and the
motions of the body.
Body (desires) : A ……… B ……… C
Mind (thought): A’ ……… B’ …….. C’
Body (actions): A” …….. B” ……… C”
• This was the viewpoint expressed
and accepted by the Church that
was dominant prior to (and again,
after) Darwin.
• Physical forces originating in the
body could be controlled by the
soul – there could be MIND OVER
MATTER, or SPIRITUALITY OVER
MATERIALISM.
• Hence, individuals were held
responsible for their actions, and
were guided or governed by the
rules of the Church.
• Behaviors therefore could be
judged as “GOOD” or “BAD” and
were subject to punishment.
 CONCEPTIONS OF SUBHUMANS
• In contrast to the dualistic
explanation of human
behavior, the actions of
subhumans were
interpreted with a monistic
system.
• ACTIONS were believed to
be determined entirely by
MECHANICAL forces or
PRESSURES initiated either
internal to the organism
(e.g. hunger) or external to
it (e.g. a painful stimulus)
• The ACTIONS were
considered to be REFLEXES
or INSTINCTS
• Bolles (1967), “If an animal
was without food, its
physiology would be
disturbed in such a way that
it would eat; it was
compelled to eat by its
physical structure”
• Hence, there was no
intervention of the MIND or
WILL, as in the
interpretation of human
behavior.
 CONCEPTIONS OF SUBHUMANS
• This explanation was consistent
with the extant culture
• The dilemma created for the
motivational thinker was that, IF
SUBHUMANS had MINDS, then
they also must have SOULS,
inasmuch as the MIND was the
location of the SOUL.*
• Further, if SUBHUMANS had
WILL, then their ACTIONS would
be subject to the RESTRICTIONS
of the CHURCH.*
• AUTOMATA or MACHINES
• They could not develop language
or symbolic capacities, they did
not anticipate ends, they were
not able to have self-initiated
recall, so forth..
• MACHINES also are devoid of
emotion
• “Animals eat without pleasure
and cry without pain” ~ Descartes
 DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
• Darwin presented • Fitness meant that the
carefully accumulated anatomical structure of
evidence that those the organism increased
“most fit” in their its chances of satisfying
environments survive, basic needs, including
whereas others are less reproductive success.
fit do not • Darwin did not discover
evolution, but he did
provide the mechanism
with the principle of
survival of the fittest
 DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
• Darwin also proposed that
there was a mental continuity,
a mental evolution, between
humans and subhumans so
that they were presumed to
differ in degree or
quantitatively, but not in kind
or qualitatively.
• Man in his arrogance thinks
himself a great work, worthy
of the interposition of a deity.
More humble and believe true
to consider him created from
ANIMALS ~ Darwin
• Human behaviors, like the
behavior of other animals,
must to some extent be
determined by reflexes and
instincts;
• That is, behavior was
determined directly by physical
forces and was programmed
or built into the organism on
the basis of evolutionary
principles
• Humans had more • This position clearly
INSTINCTS than any took the study of
other ANIMAL psychology out of
• One could therefore religion and philosophy
propose a monistic and made it a part of
system to explain the biology.
behavior of all • Psychologist then could
organisms, and this study the structure and
gave rise to a function of human
conception of person as machine – Sigmund
Machines Freud and Clark Hull
• On the other hand, given • Although the mind must
that animals are like be equated with thinking
humans, they also must and divested of its
possess intelligence and association with the soul
rationality. Thus the • The belief that both
behavior of all organisms subhuman behavior and
also might be explained human behavior are
with a dualistic system guided by thoughts also
including the mind and was a tremendous
the body influence on the study of
motivation and guides
contemporary theories.
In SUM….

WHAT DARWIN ACCOMPLISHED FOR

MOTIVATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS WAS
TO PROVIDE ALTERED WAYS OF
THINKING ABOUT THE NATURE OF
BEING. THIS PRODUCED A
FOUNDATION FOR THE STUDY OF
MOTIVATION
Next topic will be….

METAPHORS AND THE NATURE OF

BEING
TWO METAPHORS

• The PERSON is a MACHINE (Monistic

understanding of subhumans)
The PERSON is GODLIKE (derived
from the dualistic undestanding of
humans)
WHAT THEN ARE THE ASSOCIATED
IMPLICATIONS OF THESE
METAPHORS?
CHARACTERISTICS OF MACHINES that
maybe SHARED by human beings: