Physics 103 – Introduction to Physics I

Motion
Forces
Energy

1
 First
Dimensions
Units
Precision
Coordinate Systems
Vectors
Kinematics
Motion Variables
Constant Acceleration

2
 Dimensions

The dimension of a physical quantity specifies what sort of quantity it is—

space, time, energy, etc.

We find that the dimensions of all physical quantities can be expressed as

combinations of a few fundamental dimensions: length [L], mass [M], time
[T], and either electric charge [Q] or electrical current [A].

 E    M   L
2

For example, energy - .

T 2

The physical quantity speed has dimensions of  L .

 T

3
 Units

International System (SI)

The units of the fundamental dimensions in the SI are

dimension SI cgs Customary

[L] meter centimeter foot

(m) (cm) (ft)
[T] second second second
(s or sec)
[M] kilogram gram slug or
(kg) (g) pound-mass

The SI units will be introduced as we go along.

4
 Unit Conversions

We might measure the length of an (American) football field with a meter stick and a
yard stick. We’d get two different numerical values, but obviously there is one field
with one length. We’d say that 100 yards  91.44 meters . In other words,
100 yards
 1.0
91.44 meters

Suppose we wish to convert 2 miles into meters. [2 miles = 3520 yards.]

The units cancel or multiply just like common numerical factors. Since we want
to cancel the yards in the numerator, the conversion factor is written with the
yards in its denominator. 5280 feet 1 yard 91.44 meters
2 miles     3218.688 meters
1 mile 3 feet 100 yards
Since each conversion factor equals 1, the physical measurement is unchanged,
though the numerical value is changed.

Note: the units are a part of the measurement as

important as the number. They must always be kept
together. 5
 Precision & Significant Digits

Instruments cannot perform measurements to arbitrary precision. A meter stick

commonly has markings 1 millimeter (mm) apart, so distances shorter than that
cannot be measured accurately with a meter stick.

We report only significant digits—those whose values we feel sure are

accurately measured. There are two basic rules: (i) the last significant digit is
the first uncertain digit and (ii) when combining numbers, the result has no
more significant digits than the least precise of the original numbers.

A third rule is, the exercises and problems in the textbook assume there are 3
significant digits. Therefore, we never include more than 3 significant digits in
our numerical results, no matter that the calculator displays 8 or 10 or more.

6
The uncertainty in a numerical value may be expressed in terms of a tolerance, as

23.273  0.005
Alternatively, the uncertainty can be shown in scientific notation simply by the number
of digits displayed in the mantissa.

1.5  10 3 2 digits, the 5 is uncertain.

1.50  10 3 3 digits, the 0 is uncertain.

756.  37.2  0.83  2.5  796.53  800  8.0  10 2

3.563  3.20  11 .4016  11 .4  1.14 101

5.6    17.59291886  18  1.8 101 or is it 1.76 101

[Notice the ambiguity. Do we speak of the number of significant digits, or of

the relative “place” of the uncertain digit? That is, should it be 18 or 17.6?]
7
 Coordinate Systems

We measure locations in space relative to

a coordinate system. Firstly we select the
origin of coordinates, and then the
directions of orthogonal axes.

Since the directions shown by orthogonal

axes are mutually perpendicular,
components along different axes are
independent of each other.

The commonly used two-dimensional

coordinate systems are the Cartesian and
the plane polar systems.
8
The three dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system is comprised of three mutually
perpendicular, straight axes, commonly denoted
x, y, & z or î , ˆj , & k̂ .

[We’ll talk about those hat-things later.]

The spherical polar coordinate system is comprised

of a radius and two angles, as shown in the figure.
Notice how the polar coordinates are defined in
terms of the Cartesian system.

Any point in space can be uniquely specified by listing three

numerical coordinates.

9
 Vectors

As used in Physics, a scalar is a quantity that has only

one property—a magnitude. Energy, speed,
temperature, and mass are scalar quantities.

A vector is a quantity that has two properties—a

magnitude and a direction. Displacement, velocity,
acceleration, and force are vector quantities.

In text or equations, vectors are denoted with


either a line or an arrow on top, thusly: A or A

In diagrams, a vector is represented by an arrow.

In text books, vectors are often
denoted by bold-faced letters: A .
Weirdly, University Physics uses both
bold-face & an arrow!
A is not the same as A! . . . . 10
The directions defined by the Cartesian coordinate axes are symbolized by unit
vectors, î , ˆj , k̂ . A set of unit vectors that define a coordinate system are
called a basis set.
Two dimensional:
Components Vx  V cos 
V y  V sin 
V  Vx2  V y2
Vy
  tan 1

Vx

a
aˆ   
a
A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1. E.g., a , where is the

magnitude of the vector a . Often, the magnitude of a vector is indicated by
the letter without the arrow on top: a  a .

A A
11
 An arbitrary vector can be written as a sum of the basis
set unit vectors.

A  Ax î  Ay ˆj  Az k̂

Direction cosines
Ax
cos  
A
Ay
cos  
A
Az
cos  
A
emweb.unl.edu
12
 Adding vectors
The sum of two vectors is also a vector.

  
A B  C
Drawn to scale.

Ax  Bx  C x
Ay  B y  C y
Az  Bz  C z

C  C x î  C y ˆj  C z k̂

A vector may be multiplied by a scalar. This affects the magnitude of the vector,
but does not affect its direction. The exception to this rule is multiplication by –1.
That leaves the magnitude unchanged, but reverses the direction.

13
 Vector Products
scalar (or dot) product—result is a scalar; the
operation is symbolized by a dot.
 
A  B  AB cos   Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
 
The angle  is the angle from A to B .
   

      

Note: A  B  B  A and A  B  C  A  B  A  C .

Vector (or cross) product—result is a another vector; the operation is

symbolized by a cross,  .   
A B  C
  
C  C  AB sin  , direction perpendicular to both A and B
according to the right-hand-rule. [Use the three-finger version.]

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
C  A  B  Ax Ay Az  iˆ Ay Bz  B y Az   ˆj  Ax Bz  Bx Az   kˆ Ax B y  Bx Ay 
Bx By Bz
14
 Kinematics

Simply describe the motion of an object.

15
 Motion Variables


r
The displacement vector, , The average velocity during the time 
 r
points from the origin to the interval t is defined to be  v  .
t
present location of
 the particle. It’s the time-rate-of-change in the
If a particle r
 is at 1 at time displacement. In terms of vector
t  t1
and at r2 at some later t  t2 components, we’d write
x y z
time , then we say the  v x  ,  v y  ,  v z  .
   t t t
r  r2  r1 is
change in displacement
. Likewise, the elapsed time The instantaneous velocity is defined to be
or t  t 2  t 1  
 r dr
time interval is . v  lim 
t  0 t dt .
Similarly, the average   
acceleration is  a  v  v2  v1 .
t t2  t1
The instantaneous acceleration is   

a  lim
t  0 

v dv
t



dt
. t, r , v , a
16
 Constant Acceleration
v x v x 2  v x1 x x2  x1
 a x    v x  
If a x is constant, then also
t t 2  t1 t t 2  t1 v x 2  v x1
 v x  .
v x 2  v x1  a x  t 2  t1  x2  x1   v x   t 2  t1 
2

 vx 2  vx1  x2  x1
 t2  t1   x2  x1  2 x2  x1
 v x  and 
 vx  v x 2  v x1 2 t 2  t1
v x 2  v x1 v x22  v x21  vx 2  vx1   t vx1  a x  t 2  t1   vx1
ax   x2  x1  2  t1   x1   t2  t1 
2
x2  x1 2 x2  x1  2 2
v x 2  v x1 1
x2  x1  vx1  t 2  t1   a x  t 2  t1 
2

v x22  v x21  2a x  x2  x1  2

Commonly,
t1  0, t 2  t , x1  xo , x2  x, v x1  v xo , v x 2  vx

We have four equations that each relate three of the motion variables.

17
Space-time

Mathematically we can treat time and space on the same footing.

The displacement vector in space-time has 4 components.


r   ct , x , y , z 
The scaling factor c is needed to make the units of all 4 components
the same, e.g., meters. The geometry of space-time is not
Euclidian, but is non-Euclidian. Therefore,
î  î  ˆj  ˆj  k̂  k̂  1; t̂  t̂  1

18
 time, t acceleration, ax
(seconds) (m/s2)
Example: a train traveling on a straight and level track
0 - 10 2
starting from rest; ends at rest.
10 – 40 0

40 - ? -4

What is the total displacement?

Segment 1: We are given the acceleration, elapsed time and initial velocity — vxo = 0 m/s.
1
1
x1  0 m  0 m/s 10 s   2 m/s 2  10 s   100 m
2
x  xo  v xo t  a x t 2
2 2
Segment 2: To find the total displacement at the end of the second segment, we need the
velocity component at the end of the first segment.
1 1
x2  x1  v x1 t  a x t 2  100 m  20 m/s  30 s   0 m/s 2   30 s   700 m
v x1  v xo  a x t  0 m/s  2 m/s 2  10 s  20 m/s 2

2 2
v x 2  v x1  20 m/s since a x  0
Segment 3: For this segment, we know x2, vx2, vx3, and ax, but not t .
v x23  v x22  2  a x  x3  x 2 
v x23  v x22 0   20 m/s 
2
x3  x 2 
2  ax
 700 m 
2   4 m/s 2  750 m
 19
Example: A hot air balloon is rising at a constant speed of 5 m/s.
At time zero, the balloon is at a height of 20 m above the ground
and the passenger in the balloon drops a sandbag, which falls
freely straight downward. We observe that a y  9.8 m/s 2 .

What are the height of the sandbag and its velocity as functions of
time? 1 m 1 m 2
y  y o  v yo  t  a y  t  20m  5  t  9.8 2  t
2

2 s 2 s
m m
v y  v yo  a y  t  5  9.8 2  t
s s Free Fall!
What is the y-component of the
sandbag’s velocity when it hits the
ground?
v y2  v yo
2
 2 a y  y  yo 
v y2  v yo
2 2
 
 2a y  y  y0    5 m/s   2   9.8 m/s 2   0 m  20 m   417 m 2 / s 2
v y  417 m 2 / s 2  20.4 m/s. (We know it' s going down.)
20
How long does that take?

v y  v yo  20.4 m/s  5 m/s

v y  v yo  a y t  t    2.59 s
ay  9.8 m/s 2

Alternative solution for

the elapsed time:

1
y  yo  v yo  t  a y  t 2
2
0 m  20 m  5 m/s  t 
1
2
 
 9.8 m/s2  t 2

t
 
   5 m/s  25 m 2 / s 2  4 4.9 m/s2   20 m 

5  20.42
s  2.59 s or - 1.57 s
9.8 m/s2 9.8

21
 Projectile Motion

Constant acceleration, in two dimensions.

 ˆ m ˆ
a  0i  9.8 2 j
s

22
Vector equations:    1 2   
r  ro  vot  a  t v  vo  a  t
2

Component equations: v xo  v o cos o

v yo  v o sin o

x  xo  v xot
Notice:
1 2 1 The y-
y  yo  v yot  a y t  yo  v yot  ( g )  t 2
2 2 component

of a is
v x  v xo  a x t  v xo ay = -g.
v y  v yo  a y t  v yo  ( g )  t
23
Example:
How long does it take to reach
maximum height, ymax?
At maximum height, vy = 0 m/s

v y  v yo  a y t
v y  v yo 0 m/s  40 m/s  sin53 o
t   3.26 s
ay  9.8 m/s

What is the maximum height?

v y2  v yo2  2a y  y  yo 
v y2  v yo2 0 m /s   40 m/s  sin53
2 2

o 2
y  yo   0m  52 .1 m
2a y 2  9.8 m/s 2 
24
When is the projectile
at y = 25m?

1 2
y  yo  v yot  a y t
2
1 2
a y t  v yot   yo  y   0
2
2v yo 2 yo  y 
t 
2
t 0
ay ay
t 2  6.52 s  t  5.10 s 2  0 s 2
 (6.52 s)  (6.52 s) 2  4  5.1 s 2
t  0.910 s and 5.61 s
2
25
What are the velocity
components then, at
t = 0.910 s and t = 5.61 s?

v x  v xo  a x t  vo cos  o  40 m/s  cos 53o  24.1 m/s

v y  v yo  a y t  vo sin o  ( g )  t  40 m/s  sin 53o  (9.8 m/s 2 )  t
 31.9 m/s  9.8 m/s 2  t

time (s) velocity (m/s)

v x  24.1
0.910
v y  23.0

v x  24.1
5.61
v y  23.0
26
Example:

How far does the object travel in the x-direction?

1 2
x  xo  vox t  a x t We need to know the elapsed time, t.
2
The total elapsed time is the time it takes to go up plus the time it takes to come down.
Previously, we found that the time to reach maximum height was t = 3.26 s.
1
The total time, then, is 2x3.26s = 6.52 s. [Verify with 0  ymax  0  t  9.8  t 2 .]
2
1 2
x  xo  voxt  a x t  0  voxt  0
2
m
x  voxt  24.1  6.52s   157m
s 27
Example:

What are the velocity & position components at t = 3 seconds?

v x  v xo  a x t  20 m/s  0 m/s 2  3s  20 m/s

v y  v yo  a y t  0 m/s  (9.8 m/s 2 )  3s  29.4 m/s
x  xo  v xot  0 m  20 m/s  3s  60m
1 2 1
 
y  yo  v yot  a y t  0 m  0 m/s  3s   9.8 m/s 2  3s   44.1 m
2 2
2

28
29
 Uniform Circular Motion

Curvilinear motion – not in a straight line. 

Envision an object having, 
at the moment, a velocity v , and
subject to an acceleration a .
. We might decompose the acceleration into components
parallel to and perpendicular to the velocity vector.

The parallel acceleration component affects the speed of

the object, while the perpendicular component affects the
direction of the velocity vector, but does not change its
magnitude. At any instant, the velocity to tangent to the curve. 30
Circular motion

Uniform circular motion refers to motion on a circular path at

constant speed. While the magnitude of the velocity is constant,
the velocity vector is not constant. The same is true of the
acceleration vector—its magnitude is constant but its direction
is not. However, the acceleration is always directed toward the
center of the circular path. The component of acceleration
parallel to the velocity vector is zero. The acceleration
component directed toward the center of the circle is called
the centripetal acceleration.

31
Let the origin be at the center of the
circle, as shown.

32
   
Consider two successive displacement and velocity vectors. r  r2  r1
  
v  v2  v1

   
By the definition of uniform circular motion, r  r1  r2 v  v1  v2

v
arad 
t
In the limit as t  0 ,
   
v  v & r  r .
v r
 .
Both are isosceles triangles, with the same angle.
v r
v 1 vr vr v 2
arad    
t t r rt r

The centripetal or radial acceleration is always v 2 on a

circular arc of radius r. r

33
 Second
Dynamics
Newton’s “Laws”
Energy
Momentum
Conservation

34
 Dynamics

Relationships among Motion and Force and Energy.

35
 Newton’s “Laws” of Motion

“An object in uniform motion remains in uniform motion unless

it is acted upon by an external force.”
[In this context, uniform motion means moving with constant velocity.]

“The change in motion of an object is directly proportional to the

net external force.”
.

“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”

36
37
A force is an external influence that changes the motion of an object,
or of a system of objects.

We find that there are four fundamental forces in nature, gravity,

electromagnetic force, and the strong and weak nuclear forces.
All particles of matter interact through one or more of these four
fundamental forces.
All other types of forces that we might give a name to are some
manifestation of one of the fundamental forces.

Dimensions of force are  F    M  2L

T 

The SI unit of force is the Newton (N).

1 N = kg m/s2

38
 Fundamental concepts:

i)Space and time

ii)Matter and energy

Macroscopic objects—collections of many atoms & molecules.

Molecules—combinations of several atoms; chemical substance.
Atoms—combinations of protons, neutrons & electrons;
chemical element.
Subatomic particles—protons, neutrons, electrons, et al.
A particle is an idealized object that has no shape or internal
structure. Any object may be treated as if it were a particle
depending on the context.

39
Two of the attributes of matter are
) resists changes in its motion—matter has inertia, and
i) a force acts between any two pieces of matter—material objects or particles
exert forces on each other.
The quantitative measure of inertia is called the inertial mass of a particle.

Imagine two particles exerting equal and opposite forces on each other.
We observe their accelerations.
a2 m1

a1 m2
 dp
We write Newton’s 2nd “Law”
in mathematical form:  F  dt

 mv
The quantity p  called the momentum.
2
v
1
c2 40
Classical assumptions:
i) time is independent of space and is absolute.
ii) 3-d space is Euclidian—”flat.”

Unless a particle is moving at a very great speed, its

momentum is approximately
 
p  mv
Further, if the particle’s mass is unchanging, then
 dp 
dv
 F  dt  m dt

41
42
 Equilibrium

Should the vector sum of all forces acting on an object be equal to zero, then

dp
0 and the object is said to be in
dt


Static equilibrium p0

Dynamic equilibrium p0

43
 Isolated body diagram(s)

An isolated body diagram is a sketch of the object only, with arrows indicating each
force acting only on that object.

44
 Action & Reaction

Force is an interaction between two material objects. E.g., there is a gravitational

interaction between the Earth and the Moon. They exert forces on each other
of equal magnitudes but opposite directions.

 
N  and N form an action - reaction pair.
 
W and N are not an action - reaction pair.

   
N  N N W  0

45
 Newton’s Universal “Law” of Gravitation

 M 1M 2
Any two objects exert gravitational Fg 12  G 2
rˆ
forces on each other, equal in r12
magnitude and opposite in direction.

Take care with the directions. The unit vector r̂

points from M 1 to M2.
The gravitational force on M2 is in the  r̂ direction, toward M1.

46
Gravitational Field

Let’s say M1 is at the origin of coordinates. The presence of M1

gives rise to a gravitational field that extends outward into space.
 M1
g  G 2 r̂
r

An object of mass M2 located at r experiences a gravitational force.

  M 1M 2
Fg  M 2 g  G 2
r̂
r
 M 1M 2 
Fg  G 2
r̂  M 2 g
In the context of the 2nd “Law” r
The acceleration due to gravity is M1
ar  a g  G 2
r

47
 M1 ME m
Near the Earth’s surface, a g  G  G  9.8
r122 RE2 s2

Near the surface of another body, such as the Moon or Mars, the
acceleration due to gravity is different, not 9.8 m/s 2.

48
 Weight

Weight is the term we use to refer to the force of gravity

near the Earth’s surface, or near a planetary body’s surface,
or near a moon’s surface, etc.

 
Fg  mg

We do not measure weight of an object directly. Instead, we place

the object on a scale. The number we read off of the scale is actually
the contact force exerted upward by the scale on the object. If the
object is in equilibrium, then we infer that the weight has the same magnitude.

F y N  Fg  0  N  Fg
49
Suppose the object is not in equilibrium.

F y N  Fg  mA
N  mA  Fg
N  mA  mg

Suppose A = -g. Then N = 0.

The object is in free fall,
but not weightless. The term weightless
is a misnomer.

50
 Friction

Friction always opposes Kinetic or Dynamic Friction F f   K N

the motion of an object, or
Static Friction F f   S N
what’s called the object’s
impending motion.

Fx  Wx  N x  F fx  ma x  F cos 30 o  0  0  N  ma x
decompose
Fy  W y  N y  F fy  ma y  F sin 30 o  mg  N  0  0

N  mg  F sin 30 o  a x 
1
m
 
F cos 30 o   mg  F sin 30 o 
51
 Example: Two objects

N1x  W1x  F f 1x  Ma1x  0  0  F f 1  Ma1x

N 1 y  W1 y  F f 1 y  Ma1 y  N 1  Mg  0  0

F f 1  1 N 1

Ff 2  2 N 2 Fx  N 2 x  W2 x  F f 2 x  R f 1x  R1x  ma2 x  Fx  0  0  F f 2  F f 1  0  ma2 x

Fy  N 2 y  W2 y  F f 2 y  R f 1 y  R1 y  ma 2 y  Fy  N 2  mg  0  0  N1  0

52
 Cords & Tension

T1  mg
2T2  T1  W2  Ma 2
  
T  W  ma 2T2  T1  Mg  0  T2 
1
T1  Mg   1  m  M  g
2 2
T y  W y  ma y  T  mg  ma y  0  T  mg

The ideal cord is massless, non-stretchable and perfectly flexible.

This means that it can sustain tension, but cannot resist compression
along its length. It means also that the tension in the cord is the same
throughout its entire length (as long as we ignore friction).

53
Example:

    
 F  W  Tleft  Tright  ma

W x  Tleftx  Trightx  0  0  T cos   T cos   0 No help.

mg
Wy  Tlefty  Trighty  0   mg  T sin   T sin   0  T 
2 sin 

54
 Pulleys

Apply Newton’s T1  W p
 W p  T2  T2  T1  0  T2 
2nd “Law” to the 2
pulley and to the
hanging mass. T1  Mg  0  T1  Mg

55
Case Studies in Applying Newton’s 2nd “Law.”

Circular motion
Inclined plane
Restoring forces—spring & pendulum
Systems of objects

56
57
 Circular Motion

ferris wheel

Tr  Wr  ma r Tt  Wt  mat
v2 Tt  mg sin   mat
Tr  mg cos   m
r
  180o   0o

v2
Tr  mg( 1 )  m
r 58
 driving ‘round a curve

v2
N x  W x  F fx  ma x   N sin   0  F f cos  mar   N sin    s N cos  m
R
example
mg  s  0, R  50m , v  13.4 m/s
N y  Wy  F fy  ma y  N cos  mg  F f sin   0  N 
cos   s sin 
mg v2
 sin   0  m
2
cos   0 R
mg v
 sin    s cos   m sin 

v 2

13 .4 m/s  2

cos    s sin  R cos  gR 9.8 m/s 2  50 m

  tan 1 0.366
59
  20 o
 circular orbit

Universal “Law” of Mm
Gravitation Fg  G
r2
 
  ma
F

Newton’s 2nd “law” Fg  mar

Mm v2
G 2 m
r r

Orbital speed GM
v
r

60
Inclined Plane
  
N  W  ma
N x  W x  ma x  0  W x  ma x

N y  W y  ma y  N  W y  ma y  0
W x  W sin   mg sin 
W y  W cos   mg cos 

   
N  W  F  ma
N x  Wx  Fx  ma x  0  Wx  F  ma x  mg sin   F  ma x

N y  W y  Fy  ma y  N  W y  0  ma y  N  mg cos  0

61
 Restoring Force

Hooke’s “Law”
linear restoring force

Fs  k    o  Fs  k   x  xo 

 

 
F  ma

Fs  W  ma
 Fs  mg  0
 k    o   mg  0
mg Typically, we place the origin at the
  o resting length of the spring.
k

62
 Pendulum
 

 
F  ma

T  W  ma

Radial and tangential components.

vt2 vt2
Tr  Wr  ma r  T  W cos  m  T  mg cos  m
r 

Tt  Wt  mat  0  mg sin   mat  at  g sin 

63
 System of Objects

  
T  W1  m1a1  T  m1 g  m1a1
   
T  N  W2  m2 a2
Tx  N x  Wx  m2 a2 x  T  0  W2 sin   m2 a2 x

Ty  N y  W y  m2 a2 y  0  N  W2 cos   0 Newton’s “Laws” apply to

a1  a 2 x each object as well as to the
T  m1  g  a1 
system as a whole.
1
a1  a2 x  W2 sin   T  
m2
1
a1  W2 sin   m1  g  a1    a1  1  m2 g sin   m1 g 
m2 m1  m2 64
“Atwood’s Machine”

  
T2  W2  m2 a2  T2  m2 g  m2 a2

  
T1  W1  m1a1  T1  m1 g  m1a1
a1  a 2  a T1  T2  T

T  m1 g  m1 a
 T  m2 g  m2 a
m2  m1
a g
m2  m1

m2  m1 2m1 m2
T  m1 a  m1 g  m1  g  m1 g  g
m2  m1 m2  m1
65
Reference Frames

The position vector of the point P

is written down with respect to
two different reference frames.

        
r  R  r  r  ut  r  r  r  ut

The motion variables, as measured

by observers in different frames.
  
dr dr dR   
   v  v  u
dt dt dt

du
0
dt
 
a  a
66
   
r   r  ut
   Apply Newton’s 2nd “Law” in the two reference
v  v  u
 frames.
  du
a  a 
dt

 
 F
 
  ma  
 
F  ma
  

T  W   ma   0 T  W  ma

x’: T sin   W  sin   0 x: T sin   0  ma x  0

y’: T cos   W  cos   0

y: T cos   W  0
du
ax 
dt
  
Now, bring them together: W W  m
du The perceived weight is different.
dt
67
 An Accelerated Reference Frame
 2

du d R 
 2 A
dt dt

In the Outside the

elevator elevator
Fc  mg   0 Fc  mg  mA

mg   mg  mA

The reading on the scale is F’c. The observer in

the elevator interprets that as his/her weight.

68
 Energy

Work
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy

69
 Physical Work

2
 
W   F  ds
1

x2 y2 z2

W   Fx dx   Fy dy   Fz dz
x1 y1 z1

 F  L   M   L
2

dimensions
T  2 The SI unit of work is the Joule (J).

m2
1 J  1 kg 2
s

70
constant force

 
W  F  s  Fs cos 

 
W  F f  s  F f s cos180o   F f s

71
force varies with position  
dW  F  ds  Fx dx

Wnet   Fx x

x2

W   F  x  dx
x1

x2 x2 x2
k 2  k 2 k 2
W   Fdx     kx  dx    x   x1  x 2
x1 x1  2  x1 2 2

72
 Power

Power is the rate at which work is done. If W is the work done during an elapsed time,
t , then the average power during that interval is W  
 P   F v
t
J
The SI unit for power is the Watt: 1W  1 . A kilowatt is 1000 Watts.
s

The electric bills often mention kilowatt-hours.

That’s one kilowatt times one hour = 3.6x106 Joules.

Imagine a locomotive engine dragging a train along a straight track at a

constant speed of 20 m/sec. Let’s say the engine exerts a force of 105 N
and pulls the train 100 m. The locomotive engine expends
 
P  F  v  Fv  105 N  20m / sec  2 106W

or
P  F  d / t  10 5 N  100m / 5 sec  2  10 6 W

73
 Kinetic Energy

An increment of work is done during an incremental

displacement. We assume that the applied force is
constant during the incremental displacement.

W  Fx x  m
vx
t
v v  v 1
 
1 1
x  m x 2 x 1x t  m v22x  v12x  mv22x  mv12x
t 2 2 2 2

1 2 1 2
Work-Energy Theorem W  mv2 x  mv1x  K
2 2

1 2
Kinetic energy K  mv
2
74
Examples:

 
Wg  Fg  r  Fgx x  Fgy y  0  mgy

1 2 1 2
Wg  mg y  K  mv  mvo
2 2

2 1 2
v   mgy  mvo 
m 2 

Keep in mind: y  y  yo
Energy is a scalar; it has no directional
information.

75
 Every force
acting does some
work.
The block slides up the
Incline from xo to x.

W g   Mg   x  xo  sin 
W f   F f   x  xo     K N   x  xo 
W N  N   x  xo  cos 90 o  0
WT  T   x  xo  cos 0 o  T   x  xo 
W  W g  W f  W N  WT

1 2 1 2
W  K  mv  mvo
2 2

76
 Potential Energy

Conservative forces are those for

which the work done during a
displacement is independent of the
path followed. Call the work done
2 by a conservative force, WC.
 
W   F  ds x2 y2 z2

WC   Fx dx   Fy dy   Fz dz
1
The potential energy function is defined
thusly: x1 y1 z1

WC   U
For x-components
x2
To derive the potential energy WC   Fx dx   U  U 2  U 1 
function for a specified force, we x1

evaluate the work.

x2 x2 Because we are interested in potential
U 2    Fx dx  U 1    Fx dx energy changes, we can set the zero of
x1 x1 potential energy for convenience.
77
Conversely, we can derive the force components from the potential
energy function:

Fx   U  x, y, z 
x
 Gradient operator
Fy   U  x , y , z 
y    
 F  U  x , y , z   î U  ˆj U  k̂ U
Fz   U  x , y , z  x y z
z

F  Fx î  Fy ˆj  Fz k̂

d 1 2
For a spring: Fx    kx    kx
dx  2 

d
For uniform gravity: Fy    mgy   mg
dy

78
 WC   U

Spring:

x x x
1 2 1 2 1 2
WC   Fx dx   F cos180 dx    kxdx   kx  k 0    kx
0

0 0 0 2 2  2

1 2
U s  kx
2

79
Gravity:

y2 y2

WC   Fy dy    mgdy   mgy2  mgy1   U 2  U1 

y1 y1

U g  mgy

80
 Mechanical Energy

E  K U

Wtotal  Wother  Wc  K
Wtotal  Wother  U  K
Wother  K  U  E

If only conservative external forces are acting, then the total

mechanical energy of a system is conserved.

E  Wother  0

81
Gravity and spring restoring forces are conservative. Friction is
non-conservative.

Let us say that a number of forces do work on an object.

Wtotal  Wother  WC  K   U  I
K  U  I  0
E  I  0

The I is the change in internal energy of the object.

Typically it is manifested as an increase in temperature.
E.g., friction causes a decrease in mechanical energy & an
increase in internal energy.

82
Near the Earth’s surface,

K 2  U 2  K1  U 1
1 2 1 2
mv 2  mgy 2  mv1  mgy1
2 2

Spring

K 2  U 2  K1  U 1
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv 2  kx 2  mv1  kx1
2 2 2 2

83
 Recall the “Law” of Gravitation

Gm1 m2 11 N  m2
G  6.67  10
Fg  kg 2
r2

r
12

m 1
m 2
Gm1m2
F12 
r122

GM earth m GM earth
Fg  2
 mg  g  2
Rearth Rearth

84
 Gravitational potential energy

r2
  r2 Gm1m2  Gm1m2 Gm1m2 
Wg   Fg  dr   2
dr      U (r )
r1 r1
r  r2 r1 
Gm1m2
U (r )  
r Notice that we are setting U = 0 at r = ∞.

Let’s take a closer look at our (+/-) signs. The force is in the –r direction. The displacement is in the +r
direction, and r is always (+). The anti-derivative gives a (-) sign. The W is negative change in U.
Hence, U is (-).

85
 Escape from Earth
Define “escape”

1 Gm1m2 1 Gm1m2 r1  Rearth , v1  vo , v 2  0, & r2  

m2 v22   m2 v12 
2 r2 2 r1
1 2 GM earthm
00  mvo 
2 Rearth
2GM earth
vo2 
Rearth
Nm 2
11
2  6.67  10 2
 5.97  10 24
kg
2GM earth kg 4 m 4 miles
vo    1.12  10  2. 49  10
Rearth 6.38  106 m s hour

Compare the escape velocity with the

orbital speed of the space shuttle in a
Notice the direction does not matter! circular orbit of altitude 325 km. It’s
(Assuming the direction is not straight about 7.6x103 m/s (17000 mph).
down.) Nor does the mass m.

86
 Impulse & Momentum

Go back to the definition of acceleration.

Impulse v x
 a x 
t
v x
mt   a x  mt 
t
 Fx  t  mvx 2  mv x1
J x  Fx  t  p x

  
In general J  p   Fdt

 
Conservation of momentum,if F  0, then p  0.

87
A ball bounces straight off a wall.

p x  mv x 2  mv x1

Let’s say that m = 0.5 kg, vx1 = 40 m/s, and vx2 = -20 m/s.
Then the change in momentum is
 m m kg  m
p x  mv x 2  mv x1  0.5 kg  - 20  40   30
 s s s

This is the impulse on the ball! The ball exerts an equal and opposite impulse
on the wall. If the impact lasts t  0.01 s , then the average force on the wall is

1 1 kg  m
Fx   p x  30  3000 N
t 0.01 s s

88
 One dimensional elastic collision

 
p1  p2
m Av A1  mB vB1  m Av A2  mB vB 2
K1  K 2
1 1 1 1
m Av A21  mB vB21  m Av A2 2  mB vB2 2
2 2 2 2

Inelastic collision—kinetic energy is not conserved. K 2  K1  I

89
Two
dimensional
elastic
collision

 
p1  p2
m Av Ax1  mB vBx1  m Av Ax 2  mB vBx 2
m Av Ay 1  mB vBy1  m Av Ay 2  mB vBy 2
K1  K 2
1 1 1 1
m Av A21  mB vB21  m Av A2 2  mB vB2 2
2 2 2 2
90
“Perfectly” inelastic collision

 
p1  p2
m Av Ax1  mB vBx1   m A  mB   v x 2
m Av Ay 1  mB vBy1   m A  mB   v y 2

 
p1  p2
 mA  mB   v1  mAv A2  mB vB 2

91
92
Center of Mass



rcm 
 ii
m r
m i


 d 
vcm  rcm 
 ii
m v
dt  mi 
 
vcm   mi   mi vi  P

The total momentum of a system of particles is equal to the total mass of the system
times the velocity of the center of mass.  
P  Mvcm

If no net external force acts on any part of the system, then P
is constant, and so is v .
cm

The individual parts of the system may exert forces on each other, but those
do not affect the motion of the center of mass.
93
 Onthe other hand, if one or more external forces acts on the system, then
vcm is not constant.
The sum of all forces acting on all parts of the system is
    
  ext  int  i i
F  F  F  m a  Ma cm


Because of Newton’s 3 “Law”,  Fint . 0
rd

Consequently, the center of mass of a system of particles moves like a particle

of mass M. .

 
 Fext  Macm

94
Rockets & Rain Drops
Suppose the total mass of a moving object is not constant.
Say the
 net external force acting on an object (such as a rocket or a rain drop)
is Fext .

Assume that during a short time interval, t , the Fext is approximately constant.
 
Then the impulse delivered to the mass, m, is ext t  p
F .

Further suppose that during that interval t , the mass changes by an amount m .
   
p  mv2  mv2   m  m  v1
    
p  m v2  v1   m v2  v1 
We may as well just let m + Δm

   be m at this point.
    
v  v2  v1 V  v2  v2 
Fext t   m  m  v  mV

 
     
p  m v1  v  v1   m V  v    
Fext t  p  mv  mV
   
p  mv  mv  mV  
   v m  dv  dm
   
p  mv  mv  mV   m  m  v  mV Fext  m 
t t
V m
dt
V
dt

95
Recap:

v is the velocity of the object (rocket or rain drop),

V is the velocity of the m relative to the object, and
dm
is the absolute value of the time rate of change in the mass of the object.
dt
Actually, we have to be careful of the directions of things. As derived here, if
m is leaving the object, then the object is losing mass and
 
v is in the opposite direction as V .
.
Consider a rocket in the absence of gravity or any other external force.

dv  dm
0m V
dt dt
  dm
dv
m  V
dt dt
 
dv V dm

dt m dt
In real life, there is always gravity, friction, air
resistance, etc. 96
 Third
Rotation
Vibration
Wave Propagation

97
 Rotation

Rigid body
Arc length, radians
There are 2 radians in 360o.
s
s  r or   in radians
r
name definition

angular displacement, 

angular velocity component,  d


dt
A rigid body is one in which all the d d 2
angular acceleration,    2
rij are constant. dt dt

98
 Equations of rotational motion
1
   o  o t   t 2
2
  o   t
 2   o2  2    o 
  o
   s  r
2
v t  r
a t  r
vt2
ar   r 2
r
Example:
   o   2     60 radians radians
t  3 s      20
t t t 3 s2 s2
o  0
  234 (radians)
radians  234  0 radians radians
  108      78
s t 3 s s
  constant
o  unknown
99
Moment of Inertia

I   mi ri 2

I  r dm    r dxdydz
2 2

Volume Volume

The dimensions of moment of inertia are [M][L]2.

100
101
 Rotational Dynamics
Angular kinetic energy & angular momentum
1 1 1 2
Kr 
2
 i i 2 i i
m v 2
 m r 
2 2

2
I torque

î ˆj k̂      
   dL d  r  p   dp dr   dp  
Lrp x y z   r    p  r  0 r F
dt dt dt dt dt
mvx mv y mv z 
   dL
  r F 
dt

      
L   Li   ri  pi   i mi i    mi i2  I 
Rigid body:  
 dL d  102
 I I
dt dt
103
 Unwinding
Consider an ideal cord wound around a solid cylinder of

radius R = 0.5 m and mass M = 10 kg. The cylinder is

set on a horizontal axis and mass of m = 4 kg is hung
on the free end of the cord. What’s the torque
experienced by the cylinder and what’s the acceleration
downward of the mass, m? a R TR 2 TR 2 2T
 Fy  ma y I
R
 TR  0  a  TR
I
 
I
 
0.5MR 2
 
M
T  mg  ma T  m( a  g )  0  T  m ( g  a )
2 m g  a  1 m
F y 0 a
M
a

1 
M 

g  4.36
s2
N  Mg  T  0  2m 
 
  I 
T  m g 
 1

g   21.8 N
a   M  
T  R  I   1   
R   2m  
a 1 a 1 m
a   I  I  MR 2  10kg 0.5m(4.36 2 )  10.9 Nm
 R 2 R 2 s
R 104
 Roll down an incline

 
F  ma
Mg sin   f  Mg sin   N  Ma x Now, if the ball is to roll without
slipping, what must be true?
N  Mg cos  0  N  Mg cos
The friction must be just right
a x  g  sin    cos  such that a
   x
  I (We' ll compute torques about the center of mass.) R
   
 N   g   f  I
1 1
Kinetic energy: K  2 Mv  2 I
2 2

2
0  0  f R   MgR cos  MR 2
5 No slipping. . . .
1
K  Mv 2 
12
2
 v  1 1
MR 2       Mv 2
5 g 2 25  R   2 5
    cos 105
2 R
 Gyroscope
Pulley


Lo  Lo iˆ

 
 
    riˆ   Mgkˆ  0iˆ  Nkˆ 
L
t

L
 rMgˆj
t 106
107
108
 Static Equilibrium

A uniform beam of length r = 4 m and mass 10 kg

supports a 20 kg mass as shown. The beam in turn
is supported by a taut wire. What’s the tension in
the wire?

The beam is in static equilibrium. Therefore, the sum of

forces on the beam is zero, and the sum of torques exerted
by those forces is zero. Fb is the weight of the beam itself.

  
Fx  Tx  Fgx  Fbx  0 T  g b  0
Fx  T sin 60 o  0 4m
T  4m  sin 67 o  20kg  g  4m  sin 53o  10kg  g   sin 53o  0
2
Fy  T y  Fgy  Fby  0
3.68m  T  626.13 Nm  156.53Nm  0
Fy  T cos 60  20kg  g  10kg  g  0
o
T  213 N

Fx  T sin 60 o  213N  0.866  184N

Fy  30kg  g  T cos 60 o  294N  213N  0.5  188N

109
 Oscillation

y  t   A sin  2ft   

A is the amplitude, the maximum displacement either side

of equilibrium.
f is the frequency of oscillation, in cycles/second (Hz).

 is a phase factor, which depends on the initial y at t = 0.

1   2 f radians/s
T
f

y  A sin  t   
dy
v   A cos t   
dt
dv
a   2 A sin  t   
dt F  ma

 ky  m   2 y 
For an object bouncing on a spring:
k

m 110
Mechanical energy of an
oscillator

Again, think of an object oscillating

horizontally on a spring. The mechanical
energy is
1 2 1 2
E mv  ky
2 2
1 1 1 1
E  m  0  kA2  m A  k  0
2

2 2 2 2
1 1 1
E  mv 2  ky 2  m A
2

2 2 2

Notice E is proportional to the square of the

amplitude.

111
 pendulum

  mgsin   I  m2
 mgsin   m2
g
   sin 


Assume the oscillations are

small sin   

Physical Pendulum g
  I   

 mgsin   I
d 2 g
d 2 mg 2
  
  2   dt 
dt I
mg
 g
I 
 112
113
 Wave Propagation

A wave is a disturbance in an elastic medium which travels, or

propagates through the medium. The wave is intangible. The
medium itself does not travel, but only oscillates back and forth. So
there is not a net transport of matter from place to place.
However, a wave transports energy from place to place, through the
medium.
Waves come in many forms, all with certain common properties.
There are waves in a plucked string, seismic waves, sound waves,
electromagnetic waves. These are different sorts of disturbances
propagating in different sorts of media.
In this course, we will consider the common properties.

114
115
 Wave Motion

x t
y  x, t   Af   
 T 

y is the displacement from

equilibrium at position x and
at time t. f is an unspecified
function.

i) wave speed is a property of the medium.

ii) shape of the wave pulse is unchanged as it travels
iii) two or more wave pulses that exist at the same place &
time in a medium add—superimpose.

116
 Harmonic wave – a wave of a particular shape that repeats
itself. It’s periodic.

  x t    x  
y  x, t   A cos 2     A cos 2f  t 
2
   k
   T   c   
     2f

y  x, t   A cos kx  t 

Each point in the medium (x) is displaced from equilibrium (y).

As time passes, the pattern is shifted by a phase factor   ct ;
the wave pattern moves through the medium. 117
superposition
reflection

“Standing waves”
y  x, t   y1  x, t   y 2  x, t 
y  x, t   A cos kx   t   A cos kx   t 
cos a  b   cos a cos b sin a sin b
y  x, t   2 A sin  kx  sin  t 

118
 Stretched string
F
c
m
L

Only vibrations that “fit” in the length of the string will persist. This is an example of
resonance. Every physical system has “natural” modes at which it will vibrate. The
natural modes depend on the physical properties of the system: mass, elasticity, size.
We saw this same phenomenon with the spring and the pendulum.

119
“Beats”
In this case, two waves are traveling in the same direction,
but with slightly different frequencies.

y  y1  y 2
y  A cos 2 f1t   cos 2 f 2 t  
 f  f2   f  f2 
y  2 A cos 2 1 t  cos 2 1 t 
 2   2 

120
Spectrum

 2 
y   Ai cos x  2f i t 
i  i 
121
 Energy .

While the medium in which the wave propagates does not flow from one place to another, the wave disturbance nonetheless carries energy
from one place to another. Each mass element, dm, of the medium executes simple harmonic motion. K is the restoring force constant.
It’s related to the frequency by K 1 1
 E  Ky 2  dmv 2
dm 2 2
E  dm 2 A 2 cos 2  kx   t   dmA 2 2 sin 2  kx   t 
1 1
2 2
1
 
E  dm 2 A 2 cos 2  kx   t   sin 2  kx   t 
2
Over one cycle, the cosine-squared and sine-squared average to 1
2
. The total mass of the medium spanning one cycle (or one wavelength) is 
, where 
is the mass per unit length of the medium.
E   2 f 2   2 f 2  2 2 f 2  A 2 f 2

In terms of the wave speed, c, E  2  c f A

2 2

.The energy flux is the power transported through the medium by the wave:

P  fE  2 2  c f 2 A 2

The intensity is the power pr unit area through which the power is transported:
P
I  2 2  c f 2 A 2 , were  is the mass per unit volume.
a

122
Pressure waves--Sound

Compression, or longitudinal waves.

Medium oscillates parallel to direction of propagation.
Pressure amplitude, yp.
Speed of sound waves depends on density, pressure, temperature &
elasticity of the medium.
Doppler effect. . . .
deciBels. . .

123
124
The “Laws” of Thermodynamics

125