Synthesis

advanced techniques
 Other modules
Synthesis would be fairly dull if we were limited to mixing together and
filtering a few standard waveforms. However, there are many other
components and controls on even a basic synthesiser.
On most synths, the number and structure of these different modules is
normally fixed, unless you are working with a modular hardware or
software synth. So for example, the Subtractor synth in Reason has just
two oscillators, whereas a modular soft-synth like Analog Box 2 or Reaktor
allows any number of oscillators to be wired up however you like.
Regardless of what synth you are using though, it is still helpful to be
aware of the signal flow of how that synth is structured ‘underneath’ and
have a good understanding of the most common modules.
So first, we’re going to go through each of these, before going on to look
at the various ways all these components can be used to modulate each
other.
 Filters
Essentially creatively applied EQ, common types of filter include:
Low pass (LP) - leaves low frequencies, filters out highs.
High pass (HP) - leaves high frequencies, filters out lows.
Band pass (BP) - filters both high and low frequencies leaving only
frequencies around the target frequency.
Notch - removes frequencies around target, leaving high and low
frequencies untouched.
Other important parameters:
Resonance - a boost or cut around the target frequency. Responsible
for the sweeping filter sounds that feature in a lot of electronic music.
6 pole, 12 pole, 24 pole etc... term referring to the steepness of the
filter. The value refers to the number of dB dropped over an octave
after the target frequency. As with Q value, higher value means a
steeper curve.
 Noise generators
Noise generators output random noise, which
can then be shaped by filters and other devices.
Useful for adding texture to sounds and for
creative sound design. Especially useful for
creating synthetic percussion sounds.
Sometimes exist as modules in their own right,
but often one of the oscillators on a given synth
has the option of being set as a noise generator.
 LFOs
LFO stands for Low Frequency Oscillator.
Just like a regular oscillator it generates signals with
different waveform shapes.
However, these signals never enter the audio stream
and are instead used to control or modulate other
parts of the synthesizer in various ways.
They also oscillate at much lower frequencies,
usually in the range of 0-20Hz.
The generated signal is called a control voltage.
 Sample-and-hold

A sample-and-hold circuit describes a device

which quantises a signal to fixed values.
When combined with a random noise
generator, it can be used to generate random
values when triggered, which in turn can
then be used to control other parameters, for
example the pitch of an oscillator.
 Envelopes
When triggered, envelopes generate a control voltage
according to a number of variable parameters. As with LFOs, this
signal can then be used to modulate the synth in various ways.
Most synths feature at least an amp envelope to control the
envelope of the sound generated.
Parameters include:

Attack (ms)
Decay (ms)
Sustain level (dB)
Release (ms)
 Modulation
Modulation refers to the many different ways in which control voltages and sometimes audio signals
are used to control or modulate one another. There is usually some form of depth control to set the
degree to which the modulation signal can affect the target or carrier signal.

Depending on the synth, you will have different options available as to how and which signals can
be routed to control each other. For example, on one synth, the envelope controls may be fixed to
control volume, whereas on another you may be able to switch it to control pitch or filter frequency.

Modulation occurring at low frequencies, eg, modulation from an LFO, tends to be perceived more as
an effect, leaving the original timbre relatively intact.

Modulation occurring at high frequencies is more likely to result in timbral changes to the sound and
the generation of extra harmonics. These extra harmonics may also affect the perceived pitch of
the sound in some cases.

Modulating control voltages can either be unipolar or bipolar. Unipolar signals range from zero
upwards, where as bipolar signals can be both positive or negative, oscillating around a zero
point.These extra harmonics may also affect the perceived pitch of the sound in some cases.
An amp envelope controlling volume would be a good example of a unipolar signal, where as a
vibrato/pitch modulation effect would require an LFO generating a bipolar signal.
Amplitude modulation
(AM)
In amplitude modulation, a unipolar signal is used to
modulate the volume of a carrier signal.
At low frequencies, this produces tremolo effects; at higher
frequencies it will have a noticeable timbral effect on the
sound.
Generates sideband frequencies either side of the carrier.
Ring modulation (RM)
Describes a circuit which multiplies two bipolar signals together.
These signals would usually both be audio signals.
Essentially results in a form of amplitude modulation where the volume
of one signal alters the volume of another (As apposed to regular
mixing, where the two signals are simply added together).
However, since the audio signal is effectively being modulated by
another audio signal, rather than a low frequency control voltage, a
type of frequency mixing results, often creating quite extreme effects.
Like AM, RM results in the generation of extra harmonics either side of
the central frequency called sidebands. However, unlike AM, the
original carrier signal cancels itself out, resulting in a more ‘affected’
sound.
Responsible for creating Dalek voices!
 Pulse Width
Modulation
A square wave can be thought off as a pulse with equal-
length positive (peaks) and negative values (troughs).
Pulse Width Modulation allows the ratio between these
distances to be changed, thus affecting the harmonic
content of the waveform.
Even on synths without this feature, it is easy to recreate
by multiplying two identical oscillators together and
adjusting the phase of one relative to the other.
The resulting cancelling out between the two oscillators
when they are multiplied together, allows for the pulse
width to be varied by varying the phase between the two.
 Pitch modulation
The vibrato effect created when the modulation wheel
is turned up on a keyboard, is the result of an LFO
modulating the pitch of the sound. The modulation
wheel varies the modulation depth, meaning the
amount by which the modulated parameter is effected.
The modulation rate is controlled by the speed of the
LFO.
Even if the wheel is down all the way, it can be
assumed that the LFO is still running in the
background, albeit without any audible effect.
Frequency Modulation
(FM synthesis)
An oscillator is used to modulate the frequency of another oscillator.
Essentially pitch modulation above 20Hz.
Like AM and RM, this results in sidebands. The technique has also led
to its own branch of synthesis, with dedicated FM synthesizers
appearing in the 1980s such as the Yamaha DX7.

In the world of FM synthesis, oscillators tend to get called operators

instead. The more operators available on an FM synthesizer, the more
complex the sounds which can be produced.
Dedicated FM synthesizers can be programmed with different
algorithms which affect the configuration of these operators. So for
example, one oscillator may modulate a second oscillator which then
modulates the carrier.
FM synthesis is very good for creating metallic, bell-like sounds due to
the enharmonic nature of the generated sidebands.