Bioenergetics and the Strategy'

of Metabolism

1. NUSMIATI
2. MERISTIN ANGRAENI
3. RIA ANNISA
1. Chemotrophs (noun) 1. Kemotrof
2. Phototrophs (noun) 2. Fototrof
3. Radiant energy (noun) 3. Energi Radiasi
4. Governed (verb) 4. Di atur
5. Respectively (adverb) 5. Masing-masing
6. Encountered (adj) 6. Di temui
7. Concomitantly (adverb) 7. Secara bersamaan
8. Arbitrary (adverb) 8. Sewenang-wenang
9. Downward (adj) 9. Ke bawah
10. Anhydride (noun) 10. Anhidrit
11. Utilized (verb) 11. Digunakan
12. Accessible (Adj) 12. Dapat diperoleh
13. Cheinotrophs (noun) 13. Cheinotrophs
14. Steady-state (Adj) 14. Stabil
15. Accomplished (Adj) 15. Mahir
16. Favorable (Adj) 16. Baik
17. Phosphorylated (adj) 17. Terfosforilasi
18. Concomitant (adj) 18. Seiring
19. Precursors (noun) 19. Pendahulu/pelopor
 CONCEPTS

1. Organisms Organisms can be divided into two

convert raw classes, depending on the kind of energy source
materials into they utilize. Chemotrophs require fuel molecules
living matter
that can be oxidized to produce chemically useful
at the expense
of energy from energy. Phototrophs convert the radiant energy of
their sunlight into a chemically useful form. Each class
environment. of organisms is dependent on the other
 2. Biological energy transformations obey the laws of
thermodynamics
B
Energy transformations in biological
A systems are governed by equation 9.1, which is All systems tend toward
derived from the first and second laws of thermodynamic equilibrium, the
thermodynamics: point at which the free
G = H-TS energy of the system is a minimum.
This expression relates the change in free energy Consequently, any reversible
(6.G) of a system and its surroundings to the
process proceeds in the direction
change in its (tJ.H), the change in its entropy or
degree of dienthalpy or heat content sorder
that leads to a decrease in free
(tJ.S), and the absolute temperature (T). Almost energy, so that tJ.G is negative.
all biological processes occur at constant Therefore, the value of tJ.G for a
(usually atmospheric) pressure, essentially biochemical reaction indicates its
constant volume, and constant temperature. Free tendency to proceed, and the free
energy can be defined as the component of the energy it will release.
total energy that is available for useful work
under these conditions.
 Reactions that involve transfer of electrons from one molecule to
A another are called oxidation-reduction or redox reactions. The
molecule that loses electrons is oxidized and the molecule that
gains electrons is reduced. The tendency for redox reactions to
proceed depends on the difference in energy of the transferable
electrons in the two molecules
3

Organisms In a complete redox reaction, the electrons accepted by

obtain Aox in the formation of Ared must be donated by another
molecule, Bred' which concomitantly undergoes oxidation
energy
to Box' The tendency of the electrons to be tra-nsferred, in
from the overall reaction
oxidation-
reduction
reactions

3 To make the parameter liEo quantitatively
useful, values of Eo are expressed
relative to an arbitrary standard, the hydrogen
half-cell under standard conditions
(pH = 0): Eo = O.OOV
The Eo values for half-cells involving electrons
with higher energy than those in the standard
half-cell are assigned a negative sign, whereas
those involving electrons with lower energy
than those in the standard half-cell are assigned
a positive sign.
4
Several biologically important
half-cell potentials are listed in
Table 9.1, with the highest-
energy electrons at the top.
Spontaneous electron transfer
occurs only in the downward
direction, from the reduced
member of a given couple to the
oxidized member of a couple
lower on the list. [Note that
under standard biological
conditions(pH = 7), Eo for the
hydrogen half-cell is -0.42 Vl
 C When a redox reaction takes place under nonstandard conditions of temperature
and concentration, the potential difference t:J.E' is related to t:J.Eo by the
Nernst equation. Likewise, the potential of a half-cell under nonstandard
conditions

Chemotrophs and phototrophs obtain energy from

redox reactions. Chemotrophs require an environmerital
source of high-energy electrons (e.g., an organic molecule)
D and an acceptor to which the electrons can be transferred
(e.g., oxygen) with release of free energy. Phototrophs use the
energy of light to raise electrons from low to high
energy, and then trarisfer them to an internal acceptor with
release of free energy.
 A
In all organisms the free energy released in redox reactions is
conserved in the energy- carrier molecule adenosirie triphosphate
~ATP). ATP functions as an energy carrier by virtue of its two "high-
energy" phosphate anhydride bonds. The term high energy~refers not
4 to bond energy, but to the free.energy released when either of these
twobonds is hydrolyzed in reactions such as
ATP is the ADP and AMP represent adenosine diphosphate and adenosine
universal monophosphate, respectively, and Pi represents inorganic phosphate,
carrier of free
HPO~-. The high, negative 6>.Ca values indicate that hydrolysis of
energy
the two bonds is strongly favored thermodynamically.
 B ATP formation from ADP and PI is driven by the energy generated when fuel
molecules are oxidized in chemotrophs, or light is trapped in phototrophs. The
energy in ATP is utilized, via breakdown to ADP+ Pi' to drive
thermodynamically unfavorable processes such as biosynthesis, active transport,
and motility. Organisms do not contain sufficient ATP to use it for storage of
large amounts of energy. Rather, ATP serves as the carrier of energy in a readily
accessible form.

Energy transfer via ATP is accomplished by transfer of phosphate groups. In the

breakdown of fuel ,molecules (catabolism), energetically favorable redox reactions
produce either ATP or high-energy phosphorylated compounds whose negative C
CiGo values for hydrolysis are even greater than that of ATP. Such compounds can
spontaneously transfer phosphate groups to ADP, producing ATP, with a net
negative CiGo. Their mechanisms of formation in catabolism are discussed in
Chapters 10 and II. In biosynthesis, ATP is used to phosphorylate intermediates,
thereby producing activated derivatives that can react spontaneously
 NADH and NADPH are the universal carriers of hydrogen
and electrons.

Biosynthesis requires hydrogen and electrons, or reducing power,

in addition to ATP. When fuel molecules are oxidized in catabolism, they
lose hydrogen and electrons. Most of these hydrogens and electrons are
transferred to an environmental acceptor such as oxygen, with concomitant
ATP production. However, some of them must be conserved and reutilized
in the synthesis of cellular components-generally large reduced molecules-
from the ~mall oxidized precursors produced in catabolism
All organisms use the same pair of pyridine nucleotides as carrier
molecules for hydrogen and electrons: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD+), and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+)
(Figure 9.4). Both molecules accept hydrogen and electrons in the
oxidation reactions of catabolism, and become reduced
The oxidative half-reactions of catabolism generally produce two
H+ ions and two electrons