Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Fault location
© ABB Group
January 24, 2019 | Slide 2
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers
IEC terminal markings and polarity
I1
P1 S1 I2 P1 1S1
Measuring core
A and winding
A
1S2
P2 S2 2S1
Protection core
and winding
One core current transformer rel 1
2S2
C1 C2 3S1
Protection core
P2
rel 2 and winding
P1
3S2
P2
Three core current transformer
S1 S2
Two primary windings
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 3
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, (IEC) ratings
Current transformer (CT) Rated burden
- the sum of the burdens of all devices connected to
P=Protection the
load of the current transformer plus the load of the
conductors must not be greater than the rated burden
300/5 A 5P20 10VA
Accuracy class
- typical values for current
transformers 5P (5%) and 10P (10%)
When dimensioning the CT´s and when making the relay settings the possible
saturation has to be
taken into account
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 4
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, saturation
Saturation of CT
Primary current
(reduced to the
• CT will saturate, when the magnetic secondary)
flux density reaches the saturation
Current
Saturated
limit for the magnetic flux: secondary
current
Time
ISaturate Fa x IN
(=total error exceeds 5% at
class 5P,
respectively 10% at 10P)
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 5
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, saturation
Saturation of CT
• DC component, remanence flux or large burden may
cause CT’s to saturate even with minor currents
• When the CT is saturated the magnetizing current of the
CT will grow rapidly and therefore the secondary current
will reduced
• Current transformer saturation may cause false
operations of relays or prolong the operation time
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 6
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, accuracy limit factor
Calculating the accuracy limit factor ALF
• The approximate value of the effective accuracy limit
factor Fa corresponding to the actual CT burden can be
calculated on the basis of the next equation:
300/5A 5P20 10VA
Where,
Fn = nominal accuracy limit factor
Sin = internal burden of the CT
Sn = nominal burden of the CT
Sa = actual burden of the CT
Sin Sn
Fa Fn
Sin Sa
S = I2 x R
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 7
Short Circuit Protection
Current measuring
Calculate the actual over current limit factor ALF (Fa) for a
three phase connection with common return conductor.
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 8
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, accuracy limit factor
Calculating the accuracy current limit factor ALF
• Burden caused by the k, when the CT is only in one phase and
conductor between CT return conductor included
and relay I2n/A k ( k = x 2 x I2)
1A 0.0352 r =resistivity for copper
2A 0.1408
5A 0.88
SCu k
l [m ]
2
VA k, when the CT´s are in three phase and
A[mm ] common return conductor.
I2n/A k
( k = x 1.1 x I2)
1A 0.0192 r =resistivity for copper
2A 0.0768
5A 0.48
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 9
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, accuracy limit factor
CT data 300 / 5 5P20 10VA
Nominal current In = 5 A
Nominal accuracy limit factor Fn = 20
Nominal burden of the CT Sn = 10 VA
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 11
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, simulation
300 / 5 5P20 10VA , Actual ALF 33.3
What will the CT secondary current be, when primary fault current is
10 kA?
No DC-component, no remanence.
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 12
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, simulation
300 / 5 5P20 10VA , Actual ALF 33.3
What will the CT secondary current be, when primary fault current is
10 kA?
100% DC-component, time constant L/R =60ms, no remanence.
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 13
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, simulation
300 / 5 5P20 10VA , Actual ALF 33.3
What will the CT secondary current be, when primary fault current is
10 kA?
100% DC-component, time constant L/R =60ms, remanence in the
favourable direction.
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 14
Short Circuit Protection
Current transformers, simulation
300 / 5 5P20 10VA , Actual ALF 33.3
What will the CT secondary current be, when primary fault current is
10 kA?
100% DC-component, time constant L/R =60ms, remanence in the
unfavourable direction.
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 15
Short Circuit Protection
Current measurement
What current will the REF615 relay measure during CT saturation?
Depends on the Measurement mode.
DFT
‘Discrete Fourier Transform’
Represents the magnitude and angle of the fundamental wave
(50Hz) component
Insensitive to DC-component
RMS
‘Root mean Square’
Represents the effective value of the current
Important for thermal protection
No angle measurement.
Measured value affected by the DC-component
Peak-To-Peak
Measured difference between positive and negative peak values
No angle measurement
Insensitive to DC-component
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 16
Short Circuit Protection
Current measurement
DFT
What will the REF 615 relay measure, when primary fault current is
10 kA?
Example:100% DC-component, time constant L/R =60ms, no
remanence.
The 7000A start value is exceeded when approx 110 ms time has
elapsed => the protection trip will also be delayed for the same
amount.
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 18
Short Circuit Protection
Current measurement
DFT
Overcurrent protect set to start value I>> 7000A.
‘worst case’ scenario: full DC –offset, long DC time constant (160 ms
X/R=50), unfavourable remanence.
The 7000A start value is exceeded when approx 250 ms time has
elapsed. => Can cause problems with selectivity , if upstream relay
does not have similar delay due to CT saturation. Prolonged operation
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 19
time means also increased damage due to fault current.
Short Circuit Protection
Current measurement
RMS
What will the REF 615 relay measure, when primary fault current is
10 kA?
Example:100% DC-component, time constant L/R =60ms, no
remanence.
Values are generally higher than those of DFT. Start value of 7kA
exceeded @ 82 ms (vs 110 ms with DFT).
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 20
Short Circuit Protection
Current measurement
RMS
Effect of the DC component can cause overreach.
Example:100% DC-component, time constant L/R =60ms, favourable
remanence, a better CT (ALF =60)
During the first cycle, a value of 13kA is measured, which is too big (correct
value 10kA)
This can cause problems with selectivity with downstream protection when
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 21
instantaneous OC protection is used.
Also inrush currents and motor start-up currents can be seen too big.
Short Circuit Protection
Current measurement
Peak-To-Peak
What will the REF 615 relay measure, when primary fault current is
10 kA?
Example:100% DC-component, time constant L/R =60ms, no
remanence.
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 22
Short Circuit Protection
Current measurement
Peak-To-Peak
A closer look
IFAULT
• Directionally selecitive over current protection ILOAD
operates when both
• current exceeds the setting value
3I>
• direction of fault current agrees the setting R1
I fault
U
3I>
R2
U I load
I load operation
operation I fault
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 26
Short Circuit Protection
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Example
Station A Station B
3I> 3 3I>
Infeed 250ms
100ms
3I> 3I> 1
400ms 100ms
3I> 4 3I>
250ms
5 100ms 2
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 27
Short Circuit Protection
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Advantages/disadvantages
1000 ms 1000 ms
• Advantages:
• Selective protection to meshed
850 ms 850 ms
networks
• Solution with normal directional
relays 100 ms 100 ms
250 ms 250 ms
• Cheapest way to protect the 700 ms 700 ms
meshed networks 250 ms 250 ms
700 ms 700 ms
•
400 ms 400 ms
Disadvantages: 550 ms 550 ms
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 29
Short Circuit Protection
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Direction determination. Polarization methods
Cross-polarization
• In single phase faults the faulted phase current phasor is compared to
phase-to-phase voltage phasor (healthy phases)
• All phases individually: IA - UBC, IB - UCA, IC - UAB
• Relay will operate is any of phases fullfill the operation criterias
• In two phase short-circuits the phase-phase current is compared to two
phase-phase voltages
• Only the currents of phases having the fault is considered
• Example (two phase fault) IA - IB phasor is compared with UBC -
UCA phasor
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 30
Short Circuit Protection
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Direction determination. Polarization methods
Self-polarization
• In single phase faults the faulted phase current phasor is compared to
faulted phase voltage phasor
• All phases individually: IA – UA, IB – UB, IC – UC
• Relay will operate is any of phases fullfill the operation criterias
• In two phase short-circuits the phase-phase current is compared to the
same phase-phase voltage
• Only the currents of phases having the fault is considered
• Example (two phase fault) IA - IB phasor is compared with UAB
phasor
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 31
Short Circuit Protection
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Direction determination. Polarization methods
Negative sequence-polarization
• Negative sequence current phasor is compared to negative sequence
voltage phasor. I2 - -U2
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 32
Short Circuit Protection
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Direction determination. Polarization methods
Positive sequence-polarization
• Faulted phase(s) current phasor is compared to positive sequence
voltage phasor. For example IA - U1, IB-IC – U1
• Depending on the faulted phase(s) the polarization voltage has to be
rotated.
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 33
Short Circuit Protection
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Direction determination, 3-phase faults
Voltage memory
• All voltages can drop to (near) zero in 3-phase short circuit
• The voltage phasors must be stored prior the fault
• If the VT:s are located on line side, a separate Switch-on-to-
fault protection (SOTF) is necessary
Memorized voltage
(flywheel)
Actual voltage
Short circuit
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 34
Short Circuit Protection
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Configurable operating sectors
© ABB Oy
January 24, 2019 | Slide 35
Earth-Fault Protection
Topics:
Earth-fault Other earth fault
protection functions
System earthing
methods
Resistance earthed
neutral
Measurements
Setting of directional
earth fault protection
Earth-Fault Protection
Earth-fault situations
c) Double earth-fault, typically a d) Line break down and one phase earth-
cross country EF (faults in fault on the load side
different location)
Earth-Fault Protection
Hazard voltages
Earth-Fault Protection
Isolated Reactance
earthed
Compensated
Solidly earthed
Resistance
earthed
Earth-Fault Protection
UR Z
~ R equivalent circuit
U Ief Rf
Z IRe IC
S ~ S
U0
UT Z ~ Re
~ T Up 3· C0
Re Ief C0
Rf
Earth-Fault Protection
equivalent circuit
The earth fault current Ief:
Ief Rf
IRe IC
E 1 Re 3C0
2
U0
Ief
Rf Re 3C0
~ Re
Rf Re 2 2
Up 3· C0
E
Ief
Re Rf
Earth-Fault Protection
Ief Uo Re
Uo 2 or when Xc0>>R:
1 E Re Rf
3Co
2
Re
Earth-Fault Protection
Ie = 3C0E
Co = earth capacitance per phase
E = phase voltage
For overhead lines the earth fault current (Rf=0) can
roughly be calculated as follows:
U l
Ie A
300
U = phase-phase voltage [kV]
l = length of the galvanically connected OH-lines [km]
Earth-Fault Protection
I0
TRIP
BLOCK
Earth-Fault Protection
Measurements
Cable core transformer Efficency factor n for a 100/1 transformer as a function
of the networks earth fault current (solid line).
Within the mentioned current range is the phase angle error
The efficiency factor n should less than 5 degrees.
100 %
be considered when 99 %
97 % 100/1
n Isn
Iorelay * * I0 96 %
100 Ipn
n(%)
95 %
CT
91 %
Ipn = Rated primary current of the
90 %
CT 0,01 0,1 1 10
Io/Ipn
I0 = Primary earth fault current (A) continued...
Earth-Fault Protection
Measurements
Residual connection of current transformers
Iorelay
I0 I0 apIsn
Ipn
Iorelay = relay setting (A)
Isn = Rated secondary current of the CT
Ipn = Rated primary current of the CT
I0 = Primary earth fault current I0ap
= Max apparent residual current (primary value)
Earth-Fault Protection
Measurements
Residual voltage
No preferred method
Compensated neutral (tripping)
Reference:
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Introduction
The ”Father” of compensated networks: Waldemar Petersen (1880-1946),
a former AEG chief engineer, who was granted a patent at 1917
Waldemar
Petersen
Erdschlusslöschspule von
Petersen im Deutschen
Museum
Source:https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldemar_Petersen
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Introduction
Compensated systems
Benefits vs. Drawbacks
IMPROVED SAFETY AND SERVICE QUALITY CHALLENGING E/F PROTECTION
• The inductive current of the coil reduces the • Special functionality required due to
capacitive fault current multitude nature of earth faults
• Self-extinguishing of arcing faults • High sensitivity requirements
• Earth-fault current is reduced 95…97% • Accurate measurement required
• Network operation possible during a sustained
earth fault
• Improved power quality and reliability for the
customer
© ABB Group
January 24, 2019 | Slide 68
Earth fault in
compensated network
• Fundamentals
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
L1 L2 L3
L1
L2
L3 System is connected to
Yo earth through the phase-
to-earth admittances
500V (~capacitances)
Lcoil Rpar
Yo = Go + j*Bo
= 1/Ro j*(w*C0)
Petersen Parallel L1
Coil resistor
L2
L3
Yo
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
L1
L1 L2 L3
Capacitive current, ICo
L3 L2
Inductive current, ILo
åIL = Io Yo
500V
Lcoil Rpar
+Uo
Petersen Parallel L1
Coil resistor
L2
L3
UNEARTHED åIL = Io Yo
Unearthed neutral
Time domain
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection behaviour of
voltages and
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals currents
kV
0
Inductive current, ILo
L1 -30
Resistive current, IRo
UL1 UL2 UL3
L2 40
L3
kV
0
110/20kV åIL = Io Yo
-40
-U0
20
kV
0
-20
FAULT CURRENT@FLT LOCAT.
open L1 0
A
L2
L3
Io AT FAULTY FEEDER
åIL = Io Yo
0
A
500V
Io AT HEALTHY FEEDER
Lcoil Rpar
+Uo 0
A
Petersen Parallel L1 UL1@400V UL2@400V UL3@400V
Coil resistor 400
L2
L3 0
V
UNEARTHED åIL = Io Yo -400
0 20 40 60
Time [ms]
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
What residual current is measured
L1 L2 L3
by the protection?
Capacitive current, ICo
Inductive current, ILo • The residual current measured
Resistive current, IRo L1 from the beginning of the healthy
L2 feeder equals ~the capacitive
L3 current fed by the feeder itself!
110/20kV åIL = Io Yo Direction: from line towards
busbar
L1 L2 L3 -Uo Re(Io)
Capacitive current, ICo
Inductive current, ILo
-Uo Re(Io)
open L1
L2
L3 Io Im(Io)
åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from line towars busbar
500V
-Uo Re(Io)
Lcoil Rpar
+Uo
Petersen Parallel L1 Io
Coil resistor
L2
L3 Im(Io)
UNEARTHED åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from busbar towards line
What residual
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection current is
measured by the
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals protection?
L1 L2 L3 -Uo Re(Io)
Capacitive current, ICo
Inductive current, ILo
OPERATE
SECTOR
Resistive current, IRo L1
L2
L3 Io Im(Io)
110/20kV åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from line towars busbar
-Uo Re(Io)
open
OPERATE
SECTOR
L1
L2
L3 Io Im(Io)
åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from line towars busbar
500V
-Uo Re(Io)
Lcoil Rpar
+Uo
Parallel Io
OPERATE
SECTOR
Petersen L1
Coil resistor
L2
L3 Im(Io)
UNEARTHED åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from busbar towards line
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
åIL = Io Yo Parallel
Resistor
Lcoil Rpar
+Uo
Parallel L1
Petersen resistor
Coil L2
L3
(OVER
COMP.) åIL = Io Yo
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Fault resistance [kOhm] Fault resistance [kOhm]
Compensated system
Time domain
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection behaviour of
voltages and
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals currents
kV
0
Inductive current, ILo
L1 -30
Resistive current, IRo
UL1 UL2 UL3
L2 40
L3
kV
0
110/20kV åIL = Io Yo -40
-U0
20
kV
0
-20
FAULT CURRENT@FLT LOCAT.
L1 0
A
L2
L3 Io AT FAULTY FEEDER
åIL = Io Yo 0
A
500V
Io AT HEALTHY FEEDER
Lcoil Rpar 0
A
+Uo
Parallel L1 400
UL1@400V UL2@400V UL3@400V
Petersen resistor
Coil L2
0
V
L3
(OVER
COMP.) -400
åIL = Io Yo
0 20 40 60
Time [ms]
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
What residual current is
L1 L2 L3
Capacitive current, ICo
measured by the protection?
Inductive current, ILo
• The residual current measured
Resistive current, IRo L1
from the beginning of the
L2
L3 healthy feeder equals the
110/20kV capacitive current fed by the
åIL = Io Yo
feeder itself!
-Uo Re(Io)
L1
L2
L3 Io Im(Io)
åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from line towars busbar
500V
-Uo Re(Io)
Lcoil Rpar
+Uo
Io
Parallel L1
Petersen resistor
Coil L2
L3 Im(Io)
(OVER
COMP.) åIL = Io Yo Inductive current:
from busbar towars line
(depends on the compensation degree)
Resistive current: from busbar towards line
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
L1 L2 L3 -Uo Re(Io)
Capacitive current, ICo
Inductive current, ILo OPERATE
SECTOR
Resistive current, IRo L1
L2
L3 Io Im(Io)
110/20kV åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from line towars busbar
-Uo Re(Io)
OPERATE
SECTOR
L1
L2
L3 Io Im(Io)
åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from line towars busbar
500V
-Uo Re(Io)
Lcoil Rpar
+Uo
OPERATE Io
Parallel SECTOR
Petersen L1
resistor
Coil L2
L3 Im(Io)
(OVER
COMP.) åIL = Io Yo Inductive current:
from busbar towars line
(depends on the compensation degree)
Resistive current: from busbar towards line
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
L1 L2 L3 -Uo Re(Io)
Capacitive current, ICo
Inductive current, ILo OPERATE
SECTOR
Resistive current, IRo L1
L2
L3 Io Im(Io)
110/20kV åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from line towars busbar
-Uo Re(Io)
OPERATE
SECTOR
L1
L2
L3 Io Im(Io)
åIL = Io Yo
capacitive current:
from line towars busbar
500V
-Uo Re(Io)
Lcoil Rpar
+Uo
OPERATE
Parallel SECTOR Io
Petersen L1
resistor
Coil L2
L3 Im(Io)
(OVER
COMP.) åIL = Io Yo Inductive current:
from busbar towars line
(depends on the compensation degree)
Resistive current: from busbar towards line
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
• This quantity is typically very low (few Ampeers, RF = 0 ohm) and thus affected by the
measurement accuracy:
Adequate measurement accuracy of Uo and especially Io is
required! Especially when high sensitivity of protection is required!
• Below are given the limits of error for Protective current transformers according to
standard IEC 61869-2.
• For protective current transformers such values may be asked from manufacturer or
measured
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
• For directional earth-fault protection application in compensated networks, especially the phase
displacement accuracy of Io measurement is important!
• The phase displacement error of CT is the difference in phase between the primary and secondary
current vectors.
• In practice, the phase displacement is positive, i.e. the secondary current leads the primary current
vector!
Phase
displacement
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
• The practical effect of phase displacement error is the risk of unselective operation of directional earth-
fault protection, especially in the healthy feeders!
• Especially at low magnitudes of Io, the phase displacement error introduces apparent resistive
component, which may turn the operate quantity into operate sector during an outside fault
Measurement errors affect the performance of protection and affect the selection of settings!
Compensated networks and earth-fault protection
Earth fault in compensated network, fundamentals
• The practical effect of phase displacement error is the risk of unselective operation of directional earth-
fault protection, especially in the healthy feeders!
• Especially at low magnitudes of Io, the phase displacement error introduces apparent resistive
component, which may turn the operate quantity into operate sector during an outside fault
Measurement errors affect the performance of protection and affect the selection of settings!
Especially at low
magnitudes of Io, the phase
displacement error
introduces apparent
resistive component, which
may turn the operate
quantity into operate sector
during an outside fault
Accuracy requirements (Io, Uo) for different protection functions
HIGHEST
Admittance based
methods,
Transient based EFPADM
Harmonic based
methods,
LOW
HAEFPTOC
LOW HIGH HIGHEST
Im(Io) Im(Yo)
Ph.angle-
method
Im(Io) Im(Yo)
Ph.angle-
method