Transformers

Some history
Historically, the first electrical power distribution system developed by Edison in 1880s
was transmitting DC. It was designed for low voltages (safety and difficulties in voltage
conversion); therefore, high currents were needed to be generated and transmitted to
deliver necessary power. This system suffered significant energy losses!

The second generation of power distribution systems (what we are still using) was
proposed by Tesla few years later. His idea was to generate AC power of any convenient
voltage, step up the voltage for transmission (higher voltage implies lower current and,
thus, lower losses), transmit AC power with small losses, and finally step down its
voltage for consumption. Since power loss is proportional to the square of the current
transmitted, raising the voltage, say, by the factor of 10 would decrease the current by
the same factor (to deliver the same amount of energy) and, therefore, reduce losses by
factor of 100.

The step up and step down voltage conversion was based on the use of transformers.
 Preliminary considerations
A transformer is a device that converts one AC voltage to another AC voltage at the same
frequency. It consists of one or more coil(s) of wire wrapped around a common
ferromagnetic core. These coils are usually not connected electrically together. However,
they are connected through the common magnetic flux confined to the core.

Assuming that the transformer has at

least two windings, one of them
(primary) is connected to a source of AC
power; the other (secondary) is
connected to the loads.

The invention of a transformer can be attributed to Faraday, who in 1831 used its principle
to demonstrate electromagnetic induction foreseen no practical applications of his
demonstration. 
 Types and construction
Power transformers used in power systems are sometimes referred as follows:

 A power transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to step its
voltage up to the transmission level (110 kV and higher) is called a unit
transformer.
 A transformer used at a substation to step the voltage from the transmission level
down to the distribution level (2.3 … 34.5 kV) is called a substation
transformer.
 A transformer converting the distribution voltage down to the final level (110 V,
220 V, etc.) is called a distribution transformer.

In addition to power transformers, other types of transformers are used.

 These are two basic components of a transformer
Magnetic core
Windings or coils
Magnetic core
 The core of transformer either square or rectangular type in size.
 The vertical portion on which coils are wound is called limb while horizontal
portion is called yoke.
 Core is laminated for eddy current losses minimization.
 Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5mm) are used.
Windings
Conducting material is used for the winding of the transformer .
The coils are wound on the limbs and insulated from each other.
To reduce the leakage flux it is necessary that the windings should be very
close to each other and to have high mutual induction.

5
 Depending upon how the primary and secondary windings are wound
around the central laminated steel core , the two most common and basic
designs of transformer construction are the Closed-core Transformer and
the Shell-core Transformer.

 In the “closed-core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and

secondary windings are wound outside and surround the core ring.

 In the “shell type” (shell form) transformer, the primary and secondary
windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell
around the windings.
 Shell Type Core Type

Usually, windings are wrapped on top of each other to decrease flux leakage and,
therefore, increase efficiency.

7
 Power transformers

Core form Shell form

Windings are wrapped around two sides Windings are wrapped around the
of a laminated square core. center leg of a laminated core.
 Lamination
types

Laminated steel cores Toroidal steel cores

Efficiency of transformers with toroidal cores is usually higher.

10
Cut view of transformer

11
Transformer with conservator and breather

12
 Transformer Action
• The transformer works in the principle of mutual induction .
“The principle of mutual induction states that when the two coils are inductively
coupled and if the current in one coil change uniformly then the e.m.f is induced in the
another coil. This e.m.f can drive a current when a closed path is provided to it.”

• When the alternating current flows in the primary coils, a changing magnetic flux is
generated around the primary coil.
• The changing magnetic flux is transferred to the secondary coil through the core.
• The changing magnetic flux is cut by the secondary coil, hence induces an e.m.f in the
secondary coil.

13
• Now if load is connected to a secondary winding, this e.m.f drives a current through
it
• The magnitude of the output voltage can be controlled by the ratio of the no. of
primary coil and secondary coil
The frequency of mutually induced e.m.f as same that of the
alternating source which supplying to the primary winding.

14
Ideal Transformer

 Zero leakage flux: Fluxes produced by the primary and secondary currents are
confined within the core.
 The windings have no resistance: Induced voltages equal applied voltages.
 The core has infinite permeability
- Reluctance of the core is nearly zero
- Negligible current is required to establish magnetic flux
 Loss-less magnetic core
- No hysteresis or eddy currents

The phase angles of primary and secondary voltages are the same. The phase angles of
primary and secondary currents are the also same. The ideal transformer changes
magnitudes of voltages and currents but not their angles.

15
E.M.F Equation
As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic relationship
between induced e.m.f, ( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:

•Where:
• ƒ - is the flux frequency in Hertz, = ω/2π
• Ν - is the number of coil windings.
• Φ - is the flux density in webers
Voltage Transfer Ratio:

 
fNpΦmax
 
fNspΦmax

•Since EP = Vp and Es = Vs as there is no voltage drop

 If k>1 ; then the transformer is called step up transformer

 If k<1; then the transformer is called step down transformer
Current ratio on a transformer
If a load is connected to the secondary coil, there will be a current flowing through it.

A current flowing into the dotted end of

a winding produces a positive magneto
motive force F:
Fp = N pi p
Fs = N s is
The net magneto motive force in the core
Fnet = N p i p - N s is = f�
where  is the reluctance of the transformer core. For ideal transformer reluctance is zero.

 
Dot Convention
One winding’s terminal is usually marked by a dot used to determine the polarity of
voltages and currents.

If the voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary winding at some moment of
time, the voltage at the dotted end of the secondary winding will also be positive at the
same time instance.
If the primary current flows into the dotted end of the primary winding, the secondary
current will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding.
 Power in an ideal single phase transformer

Assuming that p and s are the angles between voltages and currents on the primary and
secondary windings respectively, the power supplied to the transformer by the primary
circuit is:
Pin = V p I p cos  p
The power supplied to the output circuits is

Pout = Vs I s cos  s
Since ideal transformers do not affect angles between voltages and currents:

 p = s = 
Both windings of an ideal transformer have the same power factor.
 Power in an ideal transformer
Since for an ideal transformer the following holds:
Vp
Vs = ; I s = aI p a=Np/Ns=1/k
a

Therefore: Vp
Pout = Vs I s cos  = aI p cos  = V p I p cos  = Pin
a
The output power of an ideal transformer equals to its input power – to be expected
since assumed no loss. Similarly, for reactive and apparent powers:

Qout = Vs I s sin  = V p I p sin  = Qin

Sout = Vs I s = V p I p = Sin
Ideal Transformer on no load
A transformer is said to be on no load if its secondary side is open and primary is connected to
sinusoidal alternating voltage.
 Now if an alternating source voltage V1 is applied in the primary winding of that ideal
transformer, there will be a counter self e.m.f E1 induced in the primary winding which is purely
180° in phase opposition with supply voltage V1(Lenz Law).

 For developing counter e.m.f E1 across the primary winding, it draws current from the source to
produce required magnetizing flux. As the primary winding is purely inductive, that current 90°
lags from the supply voltage. This current is called magnetizing current of transformer Iμ.

 This alternating current Iμ produces an alternating magnetizing flux Φ which is proportional to

that current and hence in phase with it. As this flux is also linked with secondary winding through
the core of transformer, there will be another emf E2 induced in the secondary winding, this is
mutually induced emf.

 As the secondary is placed on the same core where the primary winding is placed, the emf
induced in the secondary winding of transformer, E2 is in the phase with primary emf E1 and in
phase opposition with source voltage V1.
 Impedance transformation
The impedance is defined as a following ratio of phasors:
Z L = VL I L
A transformer changes voltages and currents and, therefore, an apparent impedance of
the load that is given by
Z L = Vs I s
The apparent impedance of the primary
circuit is:
Z L ' = Vp I p
which is
Vp aVs 2 Vs
ZL ' = = =a = a2Z L
I p Is a Is
It is possible to match magnitudes of impedances (load and a transmission line) by selecting a
transformer with the proper turn ratio.
Equivalent Circuit of Ideal Transformer
Theory of operation of real single-phase
transformers
Real transformers approximate ideal ones to some degree.

The basis transformer operation can be

derived from Faraday’s law:
d
eind =
dt
Here  is the flux linkage in the coil
across which the voltage is induced:
N
 = �fi
i =1
where fI is the flux passing through the ith turn in a coil – slightly different for different turns.
However, we may use an average flux per turn in the coil having N turns:
f = N
Therefore: df
eind =N
dt
The voltage ratio across a real transformer
If the source voltage vp(t) is applied to the primary winding, the average flux in the
primary winding will be:
1
f = �
v p (t )dt
Np
A portion of the flux produced in the
primary coil passes through the
secondary coil (mutual flux); the rest
is lost (leakage flux):

f p = fm + fLp
average primary flux mutual flux

Similarly, for the secondary coil:

fs = fm + fLs
Average secondary flux
From the Faraday’s law, the primary coil’s voltage is:

df p dfm dfLp
v p (t ) = N p = Np + Np = e p (t ) + eLp (t )
dt dt dt

The secondary coil’s voltage is:

dfs df df
vs (t ) = N s = N s m + N s Ls = es (t ) + eLs (t )
dt dt dt
The primary and secondary voltages due to the mutual flux are:
dfm
e p (t ) = N p
dt
 

Combining the last two equations:

e p (t ) dfm es (t )
= =
Np dt Ns
Therefore:
e p (t ) Np
= =a
es (t ) Ns

That is, the ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage both caused by the
mutual flux is equal to the turns ratio of the transformer.

For well-designed transformers:

Following approximation normally holds:

v p (t )Np
� �a
vs (t ) N s
The magnetization current in a real transformer
Even when no load is connected to the secondary coil of the transformer, a current will
flow in the primary coil. This current consists of:
1. The magnetization current im needed to produce the flux in the core;
2. The core-loss current ih+ei i.e hysteresis and eddy current losses.

Flux causing the magnetization

current

Typical magnetization curve

 total excitation current in a transformer

Core-loss current

Core-loss current is:

1. Nonlinear due to nonlinear effects of hysteresis;

2. In phase with the voltage.

The total no-load current in the core is called the excitation current of the transformer:

iex = im + ih + e
The real transformer’s equivalent circuit

To model a real transformer accurately, we need to account for the following

losses:

1. Copper losses – resistive heating in the windings: I2R.

2. Eddy current losses – resistive heating in the core: proportional to the

square of voltage applied to the transformer.

3. Hysteresis losses – energy needed to rearrange magnetic domains in the

core: nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.

4. Leakage flux – flux that escapes from the core and flux that passes through
one winding only.
 Cooper losses can be modeled by the resistors Rp and Rs.
 The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors.

 The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance XM connected across the

primary voltage source.

 The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance RC connected across the primary
voltage source.

 Both currents are nonlinear; therefore, XM and RC are just approximations.

Note

 When transferring resistance or reactance from primary to secondary divide it by a 2.

 When transferring resistance or reactance from secondary to primary multiply it by a 2.

 When transferring voltage or current only “a” is used. Remember transformation ratio.
However, the exact circuit is not very
practical.

Therefore, the equivalent circuit is usually referred

to the primary side or the secondary side of the
transformer.

Equivalent circuit of the transformer referred

to its primary side.

Equivalent circuit of the transformer referred

to its secondary side.
 For many practical applications,
approximate models of transformers
are used.

Referred to the primary side.

Referred to the secondary side.

Without an excitation branch

referred to the primary side.

The values of components of the

transformer model can be determined Without an excitation branch
experimentally by an open-circuit test or by a referred to the secondary side.
short-circuit test.
Real Transformer on no load
 If total current supplied from source is Io, it will have one component in phase with
supply voltage V1 and this component of the current Iw is core loss component.
 This component is taken in phase with source voltage, because it is associated with active or
working losses in transformer.
 Other component of the source current is denoted as Iμ or Im. This component produces the
alternating magnetic flux in the core, so it is watt-less; means it is reactive part of the transformer
source current.
 Hence Im will be in quadrature with V1 and in phase with alternating flux Φ.
 The current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called no-load power factor angle.
Real transformer with loads

38
Open-circuit Test

 In Open Circuit Test the transformer’s high voltage winding is open-circuited, and its low
voltage winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage.
 As the primary no load current is small (usually 3 to 5% of rated load current) copper loss is
negligibly small in primary winding and nil in secondary winding. Hence the wattmeter
reading practically represents the core losses under no load condition.

• Usually conducted on L.V side

• To find
(i) No load loss or core loss
(ii) No load current Io which is helpful in finding Go(or Ro ) and Bo (or Xo )

39
Core loss = Woc = V0 I 0 cos f0
W V0
cos f0 = oc R0 =
V0 I 0 Iw
I c or I w = I 0 cos f0 V0
I m or I  = I 0 sin f0 = I 02-I w2
X0 =
I
I0
I 0 = V0 Y0 ;  Yo = I
V0 G0 = w
Woc V0
Woc = V02 G 0 ;  Exciting conductance G 0 =
V02 I
B0 =
& Exciting susceptanc e B0 = Y02 - G02 V0
Short-circuit Test
 In Short Circuit Test the low voltage terminals are short circuited, and the high
voltage terminals are connected to a fairly low-voltage source.
 The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited windings is
equal to its rated value. The input voltage, current and power is measured.
 Since applied voltage is very low so flux linking with the core is very small and
therefore iron losses are so small that these can be neglected, the reading of the
wattmeter gives total copper losses at full load.

• Usually conducted on H.V side

• To find
(i) Full load copper loss – to pre determine the efficiency
(ii) Z01 or Z02; X01 or X02; R01 or R02 - to predetermine the
voltage regulation
41
Full load cu loss = Wsc = I sc2 R01
Wsc
R 01 =
I sc2
Vsc
Z 01 =
I sc
 X 01 = Z 012 - R012

42
Voltage regulation and efficiency
Since a real transformer contains series impedances, the transformer’s output voltage
varies with the load even if the input voltage is constant. To compare transformers in this
respect, the quantity called a full-load voltage regulation (VR) is defined as follows:

Vs ,nl - Vs , fl V p a - Vs , fl
VR = 100% =
� �
100%
Vs , fl Vs , fl
Where Vs,nl and Vs,fl are the secondary no load and full load voltages.
Ideal transformer, VR = 0%.

Note, the VR of an ideal transformer is zero.

The transformer phasor diagram
A transformer operating at a lagging power factor:

It is seen that Vp/a > Vs, VR > 0

A transformer operating at a
unity power factor:
It is seen that VR > 0

A transformer operating at a leading

power factor:
If the secondary current is leading, the
secondary voltage can be higher than
the referred primary voltage; VR < 0.
The transformer efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as:
Pout Pout
h= 100% =
� �
100%
Pin Pout + Ploss
Note: the same equation describes the efficiency of motors and generators.
Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice three types of losses:
1. Copper (I2R) losses – are accounted for by the series resistance
2. Hysteresis losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.
3. Eddy current losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.

Since the output power is Pout = Vs I s cos  s

The transformer efficiency is
Vs I s cos 
h= �
100%
PCu + Pcore + Vs I s cos 
Condition for maximum efficiency

46
Output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

47
All day or Energy Efficiency
• All day efficiency is of special importance for those transformers whose
primaries are never open circuited but the secondaries have variable load through
out the day. For example : Distribution Transformer
• It means that constant core loss is occurring through out the day but copper loss
varies considerably through out the day depending upon the amount of load.
• So the ratio of output kWh to input kWh over 24 hours is termed as the all day
efficiency of transformer.
 

48
Example: A 15 kVA, 2300/230 V transformer was tested to by open-circuit and closed-circuit
tests(both on HV side or the primary side). The following data was obtained:

VOC = 2300 V VSC = 47 V

IOC = 0.21 A ISC = 6.0 A
POC = 50 W PSC = 160 W

a. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage side.
b. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
c. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, at 1.0 power
factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor.
d. Plot the voltage regulation as load is increased from no load to full load at power
factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
e. What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of 0.8
lagging?
a. The excitation branch values of the equivalent circuit can be determined as:
Poc 50
 oc = cos -1 = cos -1 = 84�
Voc I oc 2300 �
0.21
The excitation admittance is:
I oc 0.21
YE = �- 84�= �- 84�= 0.0000 095 - j 0.0000 908 S
Voc 2300
The elements of the excitation branch referred to the primary side are:
1
Rc = = 105 k W
0.0000095
1
XM = = 11 k W
0.0000908
From the short-circuit test data, the short-circuit impedance angle is
PSC 160
 SC = cos -1 = cos -1 = 55.4�
VSC I SC 47 �
6
The equivalent series impedance is thus
V 47
 SCW
Z SE =�SC=а=+ 55.4 4.45 j 6.45
I SC 6
The series elements referred to the
primary winding are:

Req = 4.45 W; X eq = 6.45 W

The equivalent circuit

b. To find the equivalent circuit referred to the low-voltage side, we need to divide the
impedance by a2. Since a = 10, the values will be:

RC = 1050 W X M = 110 W Req = 0.0445 W X eq = 0.0645 W

The equivalent circuit will be
c. The full-load current on the secondary side of the transformer is
S rated 15 000
I S , rated = = = 65.2 A
VS , rated 230
Vp
Since: = VS + Req I S + jX eq I S
a
-1
At PF = 0.8 lagging, current I s = 65.2�- cos (0.8) = 65.2�- 36.9�A
Vp
and =а230
+�� 0 -� +��-( 65.2
0.0445 �=а 36.9 ) j 0.0645 ( 65.2 36.9 ) 234.85 0.40 V
a
The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:
V p a - VS , fl
VR = �
100%
VS , fl
234.85 - 230
= �
100%
230
= 2.1%
At PF = 1.0, current I s =� =а cos -1 (1.0) 65.2 0 A
65.2
Vp
and =а230
+�а0+�а =а ( 65.2 0
0.0445 ) j 0.0645 ( 65.2 0 ) 232.94 1.04 V
a

The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:

V p a - VS , fl 232.94 - 230
VR = 100% =
� 100% = 1.28%
�
VS , fl 230
At PF = 0.8 leading, current I s =� =а cos -1 (0.8) 65.2 36.9 A
65.2
Vp
and =а230
+�а0+�а =а ( 65.2 36.9
0.0445 ) j 0.0645 ( 65.2 36.9 ) 229.85 1.27 V
a

The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:

V p a - VS , fl 229.85 - 230
VR = 100% =
� 100% = -0.062%
�
VS , fl 230
Similar computations can be
repeated for different values of
load current. As a result, we can
plot the voltage regulation as a
function of load current for the
three Power Factors.
e. To find the efficiency of the transformer, first calculate its losses.
The copper losses are:
PCu = I S2 Req = 65.22 �
0.0445 = 189 W
The core losses are:
( Vp a )
2
234.852
Pcore = = = 52.5 W
RC 1050
The output power of the transformer at the given Power Factor is:
Pout =V‫�װ‬ cos 
S I S == 230 65.2 cos 36.9 12 000 W
Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer is

Pout
h= 100% = 98.03%
�
PCu + Pcore + Pout
3-phase transformers
The majority of the power generation/distribution systems in the
world are 3-phase systems. The transformers for such circuits can be
constructed either as a 3-phase bank of independent identical
transformers (can be replaced independently) or as a single
transformer wound on a single 3-legged core (lighter, cheaper, more
efficient).
Advantages
• Less space
• Weight Less
• Cost is Less
• Transported easily
• Core will be smaller size
• More efficient
• Structure, switchgear and installation of single three phase unit is simpler
Principle of Operation
 The three cores are arrange at 120° from each other. Only primary windings are
shown on the cores for simplicity.
 The primaries are connected to the three phase supply. The sum of three fluxes
is also zero at any instant. Hence the centre leg does not carry any flux.
 So if centre leg is removed, any two legs provide the return path for the current
and hence the flux in the third leg.
 This is the general principal used in the design of three phase core type
transformers.

62
3-phase transformer connections
• The primary and secondary winding of three phase transformers can be connected
in different ways such as in star or in delta. With suitable connection the voltage
can be raised or lowered.
•   3-phase transformer banks can introduce a phase shift between the three-phase
primary and the three-phase secondary – function of the primary and secondary
winding connection
• In this section some commonly used connections for three phase transformers are
discussed.
1. Star-Star connection
2. Delta-Delta connection
3. Star-Delta connection
4. Delta-Star connection
5. Open Delta or V connection 63
3-phase transformer connections
1. Y-Y connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is
VLP
Vf P =
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS = 3Vf S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP 3Vf P
= =a
VLS 3Vf S
3-phase transformer connections
2. Y- connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is
VLP
Vf P =
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS = Vf S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP 3Vf P
= = 3a
VLS Vf S
This connection results in a 30° phase shift between the
primary and secondary voltages and currents.
3-phase transformer connections
3.  -Y connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is

Vf P = VLP

The secondary phase voltage is

VLS = 3Vf S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP Vf P a
= =
VLS 3Vf S 3
delta-wye connection produces a 30° phase shift between
Theand
the primary same advantages
secondary andand
voltages thecurrents
same
phase shift as the Y- connection.
3-phase transformer connections
4.  -  connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is

Vf P = VLP

The secondary phase voltage is

VLS = Vf S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP Vf P
= =a
VLS Vf S

No phase shift, no problems with

unbalanced loads or harmonics.
3-phase transformer connections
5. Open delta connection:

 Open delta connection can be used when one of the

transformers in Δ-Δ bank is disabled and the service is to be
continued until the faulty transformer is repaired or replaced.

 Two transformers are used and primary and secondary

connections are made as shown in the figure.

 It can also be used for small three phase loads where

installation of full three transformer bank is un-necessary. The
total load carrying capacity of open delta connection is 57.7%
than that would be for delta-delta connection or 86.6% of rated
capacity of two transformers.

No phase shift, no problems with

unbalanced loads or harmonics.
3-phase transformer connections
6. Scott connection:

 Two transformers are used in this type of connection.

 One of the transformers has center taps on both primary and

secondary windings (which is called as main transformer).

 The other transformer is called as teaser transformer. Scott

connection can also be used for three phase to two phase
conversion.
Parallel Operation of Three Phase
Transformer
• The transformers are connected in parallel when load on one of the
transformers is more then its capacity.
• The reliability is increased with parallel operation than to have single
larger unit.

70
Condition for Parallel Operation of Transformer

1. The voltage ratio must be the same.

2. The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base
must be the same.
3. The polarity must be same.
4. The phase sequence must be the same and no phase
difference must exist between the voltages of the two
transformers.

71
1.Same voltage Ratio & Turns Ratio

• If the transformers connected in parallel have slightly different voltage

ratios, then due to the inequality of induced emf in the secondary windings,
a circulating current will flow in the loop formed by the secondary
windings under the no-load condition, which may be much greater than the
normal no-load current.
• The current will be quite high as the leakage impedance is low. When the
secondary windings are loaded, this circulating current will tend to produce
unequal loading on the two transformers, and it may not be possible to take
the full load from this group of two parallel transformers (one of the
transformers may get overloaded).
• A small voltage difference may cause sufficiently high circulating current
causing unnecessary extra I2R loss.
• The ratings of both primaries and secondary’s should be identical.
72
2. Same percentage impedance and X/R ratio:
• If two transformers connected in parallel with similar per-unit impedances
they will mostly share the load in the ration of their KVA ratings.
• A difference in the ratio of the reactance to resistance value of the per unit
impedance results in a different phase angle of the currents carried by the two
paralleled transformers; one transformer will be working with a higher power
factor and the other with a lower power factor than that of the combined
output. Hence, the real power will not be proportionally shared by the
transformers.

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3. Same polarity
• Polarity of transformer means the instantaneous direction of induced emf
in secondary.
• If the instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in two
transformers are same when same input power is fed to the both of the
transformers, the transformers are said to be in same polarity.
• The transformers should be properly connected with regard to their
polarity. If they are connected with incorrect polarities then the two
emf, induced in the secondary windings which are in parallel, will act
together in the local secondary circuit and produce a short circuit.
• Polarity of all transformers run in parallel should be same otherwise huge
circulating current flows in the transformer but no load will be fed from
these transformers.

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4. Same phase sequence
•The phase sequence of line voltages of both the transformers must be identical for
parallel operation of three-phase transformers. If the phase sequence is an
incorrect, in every cycle each pair of phases will get short-circuited.
•This condition must be strictly followed for parallel operation of transformers.
•In order to have zero relative phase displacement of secondary side line voltages, the
transformers belonging to the same group can be paralleled. For example, two
transformersGroup
with1:Yd1
Zeroand Dy1
phase connections
displacement can
(Yy0, be Dz0)
Dd0, paralleled.
Group 2:180° phase displacement (Yy6, Dd6, Dz6)
Group 3: -30° phase displacement (Yd1, Dy1, Yz1)
Group 4: +30° phase displacement (Yd11, Dy11, Yz11)
•The transformers of groups 1 and 2 can only be paralleled with transformers of their own
group. However, the transformers of groups 3 and 4 can be paralleled by reversing the
phase sequence of one of them. For example, a transformer with Yd1 1 connection (group
4) can be paralleled with that having Dy1 connection (group 3) by reversing the phase
sequence of both primary and secondary terminals of the Dy1 transformer. 75
Transformer
ratings
Transformers have the following
major ratings:
1.Apparent power,kVA; Why?
2.Voltage;
3.Current;
4.Frequency.

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Instrument transformers
Two special-purpose transformers are uses to take measurements: potential and current
transformers.
 A potential transformer has a high-voltage primary, low-voltage secondary, and very low power
rating. It is used to provide an accurate voltage samples to instruments monitoring the power
system.
 A current transformer samples the current in a line and reduces it to a safe and measurable level.
Such transformer consists of a secondary winding wrapped around a ferromagnetic ring with a
single primary line (that may carry a large current )running through its center. The ring holds a
small sample of the flux from the primary line. That flux induces a secondary voltage.