MCEN

EE-6402 467 – Control

AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Chapter 2:
Dynamic Models

Part C: Electric Circuits

 MCEN 467 – Control Systems

I. DYNAMIC MODELING
• Deriving a dynamic model for mechanical,
electrical, electromechanical, fluid- & heat-flow systems
• Linearization the dynamic model if necessary

II. DESIGN OF A CONTROLLER: Several design methods exist

1. Classical control or Root Locus Design:
Define the transfer function; Apply root locus, loop shaping,…
2. Modern control or State-Space Design:
Convert ODE to state equation; Apply Pole Placement, Robust control, …
3. Nonlinear control: Apply Lyapunov’s stability criterion
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Overview of Dynamic model for

Electric Circuits

C1. Basic Equations & Resistive Circuit

C2. Operational Amplifier

C3. Capacitor & Inductor

 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

C1. Basic equations & Resistive

circuit
KCL, KCV
Resistor Combinations
Node & Loop Analysis
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

C1. Basic Equations

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

The algebraic sum of the currents
entering any node is zero

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

The algebraic sum of all voltages
taken around a closed loop in a circuit is zero
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Resistive Circuits & Symbols

Voltage Current
source source

Ohm’s law:
Resistor

v  Ri
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Resistor Combination
• Resistors are in series if • Resistors are in parallel if
they are connected in they are connected in the
tandem and carry exactly same nodes and have exactly
the same current. the same voltage across their
terminals
R1 R2

Req  R1  R2
1 1 1 R1 R2
  => Req 
Req R1 R2 R1  R2
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Resistor Combination (cont’d)

• Wye Delta transformations

Rab Rac Rab Rbc Rac Rbc

Ra  Rb  Rc 
Rab  Rbc  Rac Rab  Rbc  Rac Rab  Rbc  Rac
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Overview of Dynamic model for

Electric Circuits

C1. Basic equations & Resistive circuit

C2. Operational Amplifier

C3. Capacitor & Inductor

 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

C2. Operational Amplifier

Op-Amp Characteristics:
simply a very good voltage amplifier

Ideal Op-Amp Model Analysis

 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

C2. Operational Amplifier (“op-amp”)

• Interconnection of transistors and resistors that

vastly expands our capabilities in circuit design.

• Used in a wide range of electronic circuits from

engine control systems to cellular phones.

• Designed to perform mathematical functions

such as addition, subtraction, differentiation, integration,
voltage scaling, current-to-voltage conversion, and a
numerous more complex applications.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Op-Amp Characteristics

• Low output resistance, • Very high gain:

High input resistance:
Ro  1 Ao  1
Ri  1

An op-amp is simply a very

good voltage amplifier
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

How do they look?

 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

How are they connected in an

Electric Circuit?
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Relationship between
Output and Input Voltages
Gain of the Non-inverting terminal
op-amp
Inverting
terminal
vo  Ao in   in  
 
 vi
where all the voltages are measured from the ground
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

How good is an Op-amp?

Typical values for the gain are between

10, 000 and 1, 000, 000 !
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Amplification from what ?

To provide amplification, we need power

• This power is obtained from DC voltage sources.

• Actual values for these power supplies can vary widely

depending on the application, from as little as one volt up to
several hundred volts.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Op-amp Schematic Symbol

Input
voltage
Ground terminal

Output
vi voltage
v vo
v

• All the voltages are measured with respect to the ground.

• The ground terminal is necessary for signal current return.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Reduced symbol (for v+= 0)

Inverting Output
input voltage
v vo

If the positive (or non-inverting) terminal is not shown,

it is assumed to be connected to the ground:

v  0
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Op-amp Simple Electric Model

Op-amp circuit Simple electric model

 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Op-amp Model (cont’d)

We model the
Simple electric model
• Input/output relationship
using a dependent voltage
source : A0vi
• Current voltage performance
with two resistors:
– at the input terminal: Ri
– at the output terminal: Ro
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Typical values for Ao, Ri and Ro?

Op amp characteristics I/V terminal Results:

Ri  
i  0
Ao   ( very high gain )
Ro small ( to avoid voltage drop )
vi  0
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Ideal Op-amp Model

• Our ideal model for the op-amp is simply stated
by the following conditions:

i  0 i  i  0
=>
vi  0 v  v
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Learning Example: Unity Gain Buffer

Q: Determine the gain

of the circuit, vout /vs ?

We will derive the circuit gain using 2 different methods:

a) Simple op-amp model: Ao  1, Ri  1, Ro  1

b) Ideal op-amp model: i  i  0, v  v
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Ex: Simple op-amp model (the longest method)

Ao  1, Ri  1, Ro  1

• KVL (right mesh):

vout = Roi++Aovi = (Ro /Ri)v i+ Aovi = [(Ro /Ri)+Ao] vi (1)
since i+= vi /Ri (Ohm’s law)
• KVL (left mesh):
vs = vi +vout = vi + [(Ro /Ri)+Ao]vi = [1+(Ro /Ri)+Ao] vi (2)
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Ex: Simple op-amp model (cont’d)

Ao  1, Ri  1, Ro  1
• We found:
vout = [(Ro /Ri)+A0] vi (1)
vs = [1+(Ro /Ri)+A0] vi (2)

• Therefore, since R0→0 and 1/Ri→0

R0
 A0
vout
vout

Ri

A0

A0
=> 1
vs 1  R0  A 1  A0 A0 vs
0
Ri
since A0→∞
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Ex: Unity gain buffer, using the

Ideal op-amp model (the easiest method)

• Ideal Op-amp model:

i  i  0

vo
vs  v
 vs  v  vo  1
vs • The circuit is such as:
v  vout
vout
• Therefore, 1
vs
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Unity Gain Buffer Performance

for Different Op-amps
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

As a general rule
When analyzing op-amp circuits, we write nodal
equations at the op-amp input terminals,
using the ideal op-amp model conditions:

i  i  0
v  v
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Recall Unity Gain Buffer Example

If vs = vout

 Why not just connect vs to vout via two

parallel connection wires ?

 Why do we need to place an op-amp between

them ?
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Consider the 2 following circuits

Case (a) Case (b)

Fig: Illustration of the isolation capability of an op-amp.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Case (a)
• vs is not equal to v0
because the voltage drop
across Rs :

vo  vs  RS i

The resistive network’s interaction with the


source caused the voltage v0 to be less than vs.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Case (b)

• The input current is

zero and therefore vs appears
at the op-amp input:

vs  vo
 The op-amp isolates the source from
the resistive network.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Note
• In case (a), the energy supplied to the
resistive network must come from the source.

whereas

• In case (b), it comes from the power that

supplies the amplifier, and a little or no
energy is drawn from vs.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

R Op-Amp Circuit Applications

• A number of R Op-amp circuits are designed to perform
mathematical functions.

• Classical R-Op-amp circuits:

– Inverting amplifier
– Differentiator amplifier
– Summing amplifier
– Precision differential voltage-gain device
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Overview of Dynamic model for

Electric Circuits

C1. Basic equations & Resistive circuit

C2. Operational Amplifier

C3. Capacitor & Inductor

 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

C3. Capacitor & Inductor

Distinctive Features from Resistors

How do they work?
Modeling RC Op-Amp & RCL Circuits
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

C3. Capacitor & Inductor

Distinctive features from resistor:

1) Their terminal characteristics are described by

linear differential equations.

2) Their ability to absorb energy from the circuit,

store it temporarily and later return it.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Capacitor & Inductor

A capacitor is a linear A inductor is a linear
circuit element that is circuit element that is
capable of: capable of:

• storing energy in • storing energy in

its electric field. its magnetic field.

• when a voltage is • when a current is

present across the passing through
element. them.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Capacitor
• A capacitor is a circuit
element that consists of
two conducting
surfaces separated by a
dielectric material (or
non-conducting material)

• The capacitance of two parallel plates of area A,

separated by a distance d is:
0 A
C
d
where ε0 is the permitivity of the free surface (in F/m).
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Capacitance

• Capacitance is measured in farads (F). which is

dimensionally equal to coulombs per volt.

• They are many different kinds of capacitors and

they are categorized by the type of dielectric
material that is used between the conducting
plates.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

How do capacitors look?

 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

How does capacitor work?

• Electric symbol • Assuming that a source is
connected to the capacitor, then
positive charges will be
transferred to one plate and
negative charges to the other.

• The charge on the capacitor is

proportional to the voltage across
it such as:
q(t) = Cv(t)
where C is the capacitance.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Current & Voltage in a Capacitor

dq(t )
• Since the current is: i (t ) 
dt
and in a capacitor: q( t )  Cv( t )

The current flowing through a capacitor is:

dv( t )
i( t )  C
dt
when C is a constant
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Current & Voltage in a Capacitor

t
1 1
• Hence, dv( t )  i( t ) dt  v( t )   i( t )dt
C C 

1 t

v( t )   i( t )dt  v( t0 )
C t0

voltage due to the charge that

accumulates on the capacitor
from t = - ∞ to time t = t0
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

• The power that is delivered to the capacitor is given by:
p(t )  v(t ) i (t )
• Hence the energy stored in the electric field is:
t
wc ( t )   p( t )dt

2
1 2 1 q (t )
 wc ( t )  Cv ( t ) 
2 2 C
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Capacitors in Series

n
1 1 1 1 1
   
Cseries i 1 Ci C1 C2 Cn
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Capacitors in Parallel

n
C parallel   Ci  C1  C2    Cn
i 1
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

RC Op-Amp Circuits

• RC operational amplifier circuits can be used to

differentiate or integrate an electrical signal.

• Differentiator and integrator circuits are derived

from the circuit of an inverting op-amp by
replacing the resistors R1 and R2, respectively, by
a capacitor.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Reminder: Inverting op-amp circuit

R2
 vout ( t )   vin ( t )
R1
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Example 1: Differentiator amplifier

dvin ( t )
 vout ( t )   R2C1
dt
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Example 2: Integrator amplifier

dvout ( t ) 1
  vin ( t )
dt R1C2
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Inductor

• A inductor is a circuit element that consists of a

conducting wire usually in the form of a coil.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Inductance

• Inductance is measured in henry (H), which

is dimensionally equal to volt-second per
ampere.

• Inductors are typically categorized by the type of

core on which they are wound.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

How do inductors look?

 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
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CONTROL SYSTEMS

How does inductor work?

• Electric symbol • A current-carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field

• The voltage across the inductor is

proportional to time of change
of the current that produced the
magnetic field as:
di ( t )
v( t )  L
dt
where L is the inductance.
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Current & Voltage in an Inductor

di (t )
• Since in an inductor: v(t )  L
dt
t
1 1
 di( t )  v( t ) dt  i( t )   v( t )dt
L L 

1 t
 i( t )   v( t )dt  i( t0 )
L t0
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Energy Stored in an Inductor

• The power that is delivered to the inductor is:
p(t )  v(t ) i (t )
• Hence the energy stored in the magnetic field is:
t
wL ( t )   p( t )dt


1 2
 wL (t )  Li (t )
2
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Inductors in Series

n
Lseries   Li  L1  L2    Ln
i 1
 MCEN
EE-6402 467 – Control
AUTOMATIC Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Inductors in Parallel

n
1 1 1 1 1
    
L parallel i 1 Li L1 L2 Ln
MCEN 467 – Control Systems

Capacitor & Inductor Combinations

Capacitors in series combine like resistors in parallel.

parallel series.

Inductors combine just like resistors.